Finland: form of government, general information. Finland Russia's neighbor school report Additional material about Finland

(self-name - Suomi) is a state in northern Europe. By land it borders on Norway in the north, Russia in the northeast and east, and Sweden in the northwest. It is separated from Germany and Poland by the Baltic Sea. Beyond the Gulf of Finland lie Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Not a single point, even the most remote point of the state, is located further than 300 km from the sea. Almost a quarter of Finland's territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle.

The name of the country comes from the Swedish Finland - “country of the Finns”.

Official name: Republic of Finland (Suomi).

Capital:

The area of ​​the land: 338,145 sq. km

Total Population: 5.3 million people

Administrative division: Finland is divided into 12 states (provinces) and 450 self-governing communes (kunta), the Åland Islands have autonomous status.

Form of government: Parliamentary republic.

Head of State: President, elected for a term of 6 years.

Population composition: 74% - Finns, 10% - Russians, 7% - Estonians, 3.7% - Swedes, 3% - Sami, 2% - Gypsies, 1.5% - Somalis, 0.5% - Jews 0.3% - Tatars

Official language: Finnish and Swedish.

Religion: 90% are the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 1% are Orthodox.

Internet domain: .fi, .ax (for Åland Islands)

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +358

Country barcode: 640-649

Climate

Moderate continental, in the north it experiences a powerful “warming” influence of the North Atlantic Current, in the southwest it is transitional from temperate marine to continental. Characterized by mild, snowy winters and fairly warm summers. The highest temperature in summer is from +25 C to +30 C, and the average temperature is about +18 C, while the water temperature in shallow lakes and on the sea coast quickly reaches +20 C and above.

In winter, temperatures often drop below -20 C, but average temperatures range from -3 C in the south (with frequent thaws) to -14 C in the north of the country. Above the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set below the horizon for 73 days in summer, and in winter the polar night (“kaamos”) sets in, lasting up to 50 days. Precipitation is 400-700 mm. per year, there is snow in the south of the country for 4 - 5 months, in the north - about 7 months. However, the west coast receives less precipitation than the inland lake regions. The wettest month is August, the driest period is April-May.

Geography

A state in Northern Europe, in the east of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It borders on Russia in the south and east, Norway in the north, and Sweden in the west. The southern coast is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia of the Baltic Sea.

Finland also includes the Åland Islands (Ahvenanmaa archipelago) - about 6.5 thousand small low islands off the southwestern coast of the country.

Most of the country is occupied by hilly-moraine plains with numerous rock outcrops and an extensive network of lakes and rivers (there are 187,888 lakes in the country!). Up to 1/3 of the entire surface of the country is swampy. In the north-west of the country stretches the eastern tip of the Scandinavian Mountains (the highest point is the city of Haltia, 1328 m). The shores of the Baltic Sea are low and dotted with numerous islands and skerries. The total area of ​​Finland is 338 thousand square meters. km.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

Almost 2/3 of Finland's territory is covered with forests, supplying valuable raw materials for the wood processing and pulp and paper industries. The country is home to northern and southern taiga forests, and in the extreme southwest there are mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests. Maple, elm, ash and hazel penetrate up to 62° N, apple trees are found at 64° N. Coniferous species extend to 68°N. Forest-tundra and tundra extend to the north.

A third of Finland's territory is covered by wetlands (including wetland forests).

Animal world

The fauna of Finland is very poor. Usually the forests are inhabited by elk, squirrel, hare, fox, otter, and less commonly, muskrat. Bear, wolf and lynx are found only in the eastern regions of the country. The world of birds is diverse (up to 250 species, including black grouse, wood grouse, hazel grouse, partridge). In the rivers and lakes there are salmon, trout, whitefish, perch, pike perch, pike, vendace, and in the Baltic Sea - herring.

Attractions

First of all, Finland is famous for its rivers and lakes, which turn it into a real “mecca” of water tourism and fishing in Europe, as well as for its carefully protected nature, beautiful wildlife and excellent opportunities for winter sports. In summer, the magnificent coast of the Baltic Sea and thousands of lakes provide good opportunities to swim just a few hundred kilometers from the Arctic Circle, and interesting hiking or cycling trips, hunting and rafting will not leave any tourist indifferent.

Banks and currency

The official currency of Finland is the Euro. One Euro is equal to 100 cents. In circulation are banknotes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 Euros, coins in denominations of 1, 2 Euros and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents.

Banks are usually open on weekdays from 9.15 to 16.15, weekends are Saturday and Sunday. All banks are closed on holidays.

You can exchange currency in banks, in some post offices ("Postipankki"), in many hotels, seaports and at Helsinki Airport (the most favorable rate is in bank branches), often you must present a passport for exchange. Cash can also be obtained from ATMs. Credit cards from the world's leading systems have become widespread - you can use them to make payments in most hotels, shops, restaurants, car rental offices and even in some taxis. Most banks can also cash traveler's checks.

Useful information for tourists

Regular store opening hours are from 10.00 to 18.00 on weekdays and from 10.00 to 15.00 on Saturdays. IN big cities x many large department stores are open until 20.00 on weekdays.

In Finland, traffic is on the right. Bus service operates on approximately 90% of roads in Finland. Express buses provide reliable and fast connections between densely populated areas of the country.

Finland is located in northern Europe, adjacent to Russia on its eastern border. A quarter of the country is located beyond the Northern Circle, which makes it possible to admire the northern lights. The capital of Finland is Helsinki. The official languages ​​are Finnish and Swedish.

Ancient settlements found on the territory of the country date back to the 9th – 7th centuries BC. In later times, Finland was part of Sweden for several centuries. After Russia's victory in the war with Sweden in 1809, Finland became part of Russia. And only in 1919 it became an independent republic.

The land of a thousand lakes is about Finland. The lakes have the purest water with favorable conditions for freshwater fish. Fishing tours are a popular holiday destination. There are many villages with cozy cottages for holidaymakers.

The country of a thousand islands is also Finland. The Åland Islands are an archipelago consisting of more than 20,000 large and small islands. The connection between them is by ferry, which makes travel by land convenient. The seascape with rocky cliffs, mild climate, and a large number of sunny days make this area an attractive place for tourists.

In the territories of national parks, everything is provided for recreation for residents of the country and guests. Here it is easy to find a suitable cycling route or snowmobile track, or kayak along rivers with rapids. Lots of ski trails. Special places are provided for overnight stay. The only condition is compliance with the rules of behavior in the park.

And in the north of Finland - in Lapland, right on the Arctic Circle, Santa Claus lives, in Finnish pronunciation - Joulupukka. Every winter, both adults and children come here to plunge into the magical atmosphere of New Year's miracles. There are plenty of activities, ice sculptures and even ice cafes and shelters. The bravest ones can spend the night in an ice house - an igloo. You can get a certificate for crossing the Northern Circle, chat and take a photo with Santa Claus.

And some more interesting facts about the country:
• Finland has the northernmost zoo in the world;
• the country is the most sparsely populated in Europe;
• Residents of Finland are ahead of the whole world in coffee consumption;
• the country has the cleanest drinking water in the world, which was noted by the UN;
• the number of saunas in the country is only three times less than the population, i.e. one sauna for 3 people;
• You can meet a hare on city streets;
• the country is considered the most stable in the world and has the lowest level of corruption.

Finland on the map

Brief information about Finland.

Finland is a country in the northern part of Europe. It holds the title of the best and most stable country in the world. What characteristics and features does Finland have? For the form of government and description of the population, see later in the article.

Geography

Finland borders Norway, Russia, and Sweden. It shares sea waters (the Gulf of Finland) and Sweden (the Gulf of Bothnia). The area of ​​Finland is 338,430,053 square kilometers. More than 20% of the country's territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle.

The coastline of the continental part stretches for 46 thousand kilometers. In addition, Finland owns more than 80 thousand islands and archipelagos. The most famous are the Turku archipelago and the Åland Islands.

In the area between the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia is the Archipelago Sea. This is an area in which many small islands, uninhabited rocks and skerries are concentrated. Their total number reaches 50,000, making the archipelago the largest in the country.

The territory of the state is elongated in the meridian direction. The length from north to south is 1030 kilometers, the distance from west to east is 515 kilometers. The country shares its highest point, Mount Halti, with Norway. In Finland its height is 1324 meters.

Finland: form of government and political structure

Finland is a unitary state where the Åland Islands have partial autonomy. The special status of the islands exempts the inhabitants of this territory from military service (unlike the rest of Finland), allows them to have their own parliament and much more.

Finland is a parliamentary-presidential republic. The head of state is the president, whose term of office lasts six years. The main ruling structures of the country are located in the capital - the city of Helsinki. The judicial system has several branches and is divided into civil, criminal and administrative courts.

Laws in the country are based on Swedish or civil law. Considering that the country is a parliamentary-presidential republic, the parliament and the president are responsible for the legislative branch. Executive power belongs to the President and the State Council.

What territorial units is Finland divided into? The country's form of government involves a slightly complicated division. The entire territory is divided into regions, they are divided into cities, which, in turn, are divided into communes. Each unit has its own controls. There are 19 regions in the country.

Population of the country

The country has a population of approximately 5.5 million people. The majority of Finland's population lives on just five percent of the country's territory. Overall population growth is negative, the birth rate is lower than the death rate. However, the total number of inhabitants is increasing.

In recent years, citizens of other countries have made up approximately 4%. The population of Finland is 89% Finnish. The largest national minority is the Finnish Swedes. Russians represent 1.3%, almost 1% belongs to Estonians. The smallest number possessed by the Sami and the Gypsies.

The first most common language is Finnish, spoken by more than 90% of the population. Together with Swedish, it is official. Swedish is spoken by only 5.5% of residents, mainly on the Åland Islands, in the western and southern regions of the state. Russian, Somali, Arabic and English are spoken among immigrants.

Economy

Finland's share in the world economy is modest, in trade it is 0.8%, in manufacturing - about 5%. This small highly developed GDP per capita is about 45 thousand dollars. The national currency of Finland is the euro; until 2002, the Finnish mark was in force.

The industry accounts for the largest share of the country's economy (33%). The main industries are mechanical engineering, metallurgy, woodworking, light and food industries. Agriculture is focused on growing grain crops and meat and dairy farming. It accounts for 6%, forestry - 5%.

In Finland, the Internet technology sector is rapidly developing, and investment attractiveness is increasing. Negative factors of the economy are the large and undeveloped domestic market.

Almost half of the residents are employed in the service sector, industrial sector and trade, 28% work in forestry, 12% in fishing. In Finland, there is a trend towards an aging population, which also negatively affects the development of the country's economy.

Nature

Finland is often called there are more than 180 thousand here. Most of them, along with swamps and swamps, are located in the central part of the country. The largest are Oulujärvi, Saimaa, and Päijänne. All lakes are connected by small rivers, in which waterfalls, rapids and rapids often form.

Finland's area is 60% covered by forests. The relief is represented by hilly plains and plateaus in the east. The highest point is in the north; in the rest of the country, elevations do not exceed three hundred meters. The formation of the relief was significantly influenced by glaciation.

The country has a temperate climate, continental in the northern part, in the rest of the territory it is transitional from continental to maritime. Active precipitation occurs throughout the year. Summer days are especially long and cool, lasting until 19:00. In remote northern areas, sunset does not occur for 73 days. Winters, on the contrary, are short and cold.

Animal and plant life

Finland is characterized by a variety of flora and fauna. Forests cover more than 20 million hectares of the country. These are mainly pine forests located in the central part. They grow a large number of berries (blueberries, cranberries, raspberries, etc.) and mushrooms. Beech forests predominate in the southern regions.

In the northern part of the country the vegetation is low. There are no forests here, but cloudberry grass is actively growing, forming entire thickets. Spring vegetation is represented by various herbs, such as liverwort and coltsfoot.

The fauna is widely represented by birds. Finland is home to whooper swans, which have become a symbol of the country. Here you can meet finches, lapwings, thrushes, starlings, herons, and cranes. The list of mammals includes wolverines, lynxes, flying squirrels, beavers, brown bears, bats, wolves, ferrets and, of course, reindeer.

• There are 38 national parks in Finland, where walking is legally permitted freely. Within their boundaries there are many overnight stops.
• Tap water in this country is considered the cleanest in the world.
• You don't have to travel far to see the Northern Lights. It can be observed even in the southern part of the country.

• The local sport is Nordic walking. It is a regular race walk with ski poles for weighting. They do it even in the summer.
• On average, each Finn drinks more than two thousand cups of coffee per year. For this, they have earned the title of world coffee lovers.
• In a small town in Finland, it is quite possible to meet a deer or a bear right on the street.

Conclusion

The land of a thousand lakes and the “midnight sun” is Finland. The form of government of the state is a republic. This is a unitary country, which includes a territory with a special status. The main city of the country is Helsinki.

The ecological situation in Finland is considered one of the best in the world. Even the taps here flow clean water. The country's hilly terrain is covered with pine and beech forests, berry bushes and numerous lakes. And the state carefully protects its unique landscapes.

The content of the article

FINLAND, Republic of Finland, a state in northern Europe. Its northern part is located beyond the Arctic Circle. Finland borders Sweden in the west, Norway in the north, and Russia in the east. The country's maritime borders run along the Gulf of Finland in the south and the Gulf of Bothnia in the west. The country's area is 338,145 square meters. km. Population 5 million 250 thousand people (estimated for 2009). The greatest length of the country from north to south is 1160 km, the maximum width is 540 km. The total length of the coastline is 1070 km. Off the coast of Finland there are approx. 180 thousand small islands.

Finland is a country of vast forests and numerous lakes, ultra-modern buildings and ancient castles. Forests constitute its main wealth; they are called “the green gold of Finland.” Finland is famous for its achievements in the fields of architecture and industrial design. Being one of the youngest countries in Europe, Finland has nevertheless accumulated rich cultural traditions.

Finland is often classified as one of the Scandinavian countries with which it maintains close ties. After 700 years of Swedish rule, it was ceded to Russia in 1809, receiving the status of the Grand Duchy of Finland. In December 1917 Finland declared independence. From the end of World War II until 1991, it was connected with the USSR by strong economic ties. After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, Finland refocused on establishing closer ties with Western Europe. Since 1995 Finland has been a member of the European Union.

NATURE

Terrain.

Finland is a hilly and flat country. Absolute heights usually do not exceed 300 m. The most high point country, Mount Haltia (1328 m), is located in the extreme northwest, on the border with Norway. Geologically, Finland is located within the Baltic crystalline shield. During the Ice Age it was subject to glaciation. Glaciers smoothed the hills and filled most of the basins with their sediments. Under the weight of the ice, the territory sank, and after the degradation of glaciation, the Ioldian Sea was formed, the predecessor of the modern Baltic. Despite the rise of land, many basins are still occupied by lakes and swamps. This is where the name of the country Suomi came from (suo - “swamp”). From the legacy of the Ice Age, chains of eskers clearly stand out - narrow elongated ridges composed of fluvio-glacial sands and pebbles. They were used to build roads through the swampy lowlands that occupy most of the country. Ridges of glacial sediments (moraines) block many valleys and dammed rivers, contributing to the fragmentation of flow and the formation of many rapids and waterfalls. Finland has significant reserves of water energy.

Climate.

Since the entire country lies north of 60°N latitude, the days are long and cool in summer and short and cold in winter. In the summer in southern Finland, the day length is 19 hours, and in the far north the sun does not set beyond the horizon for 73 days, which is why Finland is called the “land of the midnight sun.” Average July temperatures are 17–18°C in the south and 14–15°C in the north. The average temperatures of the coldest month, February, are –13–14° C in the north and from –8° C to –4° C in the south. Proximity to the sea has a moderating effect on temperatures. Frosts occur at any time of the year, even in the south of the country. Average annual precipitation is 450 mm in the north and 700 mm in the south.

Water resources.

In Finland there are approx. 190 thousand lakes, occupying 9% of its area. The most famous lake. Saimaa in the southeast, which is important for timber rafting and transportation of goods in inland areas not provided with railways and roads. Lakes Päijänne in the south, Näsijärvi in ​​the southwest and Oulujärvi in ​​central Finland, together with the rivers, also play an important role in water communication. Numerous small canals connect the country's rivers and lakes, sometimes bypassing waterfalls. The most important is the Saimaa Canal, which connects Lake Saimaa with the Gulf of Finland near Vyborg (part of the canal passes through the territory of the Leningrad Region).

Flora and fauna.

Almost 2/3 of Finland's territory is covered with forests, supplying valuable raw materials for the wood processing and pulp and paper industries. The country is home to northern and southern taiga forests, and in the extreme southwest there are mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. Maple, elm, ash and hazel penetrate up to 62° N, apple trees are found at 64° N. Coniferous species extend to 68°N. Forest-tundra and tundra extend to the north.

A third of Finland's territory is covered by wetlands (including wetland forests). Peat is widely used as bedding for livestock and much less frequently for fuel. Reclamation of swamps has been carried out in a number of areas.

The fauna of Finland is very poor. Usually the forests are inhabited by elk, squirrel, hare, fox, otter, and less commonly, muskrat. Bear, wolf and lynx are found only in the eastern regions of the country. The world of birds is diverse (up to 250 species, including black grouse, wood grouse, hazel grouse, partridge). In rivers and lakes there are salmon, trout, whitefish, perch, pike perch, pike, vendace, and in the Baltic Sea - herring.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition and language.

There are two people living in Finland different people- Finns and Swedes. Their languages ​​- Finnish and Swedish - are officially recognized as state languages. The main part of the population is Finns - a people of Finno-Ugric origin. In 1997, only 5.8% of the country's population considered Swedish their native language (versus 6.3% in 1980). The Swedish-speaking population is mainly concentrated in the coastal areas in the west and south of the country and on the Åland Islands. National minorities include the Sami (about 1.7 thousand people) living in Lapland. Some of them still lead a nomadic life in areas located north of the Arctic Circle.

Religion.

The Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church has the status of a state religion. Almost 87% of the country's residents belong to it. In 1993, adherents of other faiths made up only 2% of the population, of which about half, including many Sami, were Orthodox. The Orthodox Church is also recognized as a state church and receives subsidies. The country has small communities of Jehovah's Witnesses, the Finnish Free Church and the Seventh-day Adventists. 10% of the population finds it difficult to indicate their religious affiliation.

Number and distribution of the population.

In 2009, 5,250,275 thousand people lived in Finland. Since the mid-1960s, population growth has been very slow due to low birth rates and significant emigration of Finnish workers (mainly to Sweden). In the post-war years, the birth rate fell continuously down to 12.2 per 1 thousand people in 1973, then it increased slightly and in 1990 reached 13.1 per 1 thousand people, but in 2004 it fell again to 10.56. Mortality in the post-war period ranged from 9 to 10 per 1 thousand people, in 2004 it was 9.69 per 1000 people. From 1970 to 1980, population growth averaged 0.4% per year, and in 2004 - 0.18%, as immigration increased slightly and emigration remained at the same level. The average life expectancy in Finland for men is 76 years, and for women – 83.

The population is mainly concentrated in the coastal and southern regions of Finland. The highest population density is found on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, the southwestern coast near Turku and some areas located directly north and east of Helsinki - around Tampere, Hämeenlinna, Lahti and other cities that are connected by canals and rivers to the coast. The latest shifts in population distribution are closely related to the industrial development of the interior regions. Many central regions and almost the entire North remain sparsely populated.

Cities.

In most cities in Finland the population does not exceed 70 thousand people. The exceptions are the capital city of Helsinki (564.521 thousand inhabitants in 2006), Espoo (227.472 thousand in 2005), Tampere (202.972 thousand - 2005), Turku (174.824 thousand - 2005). At the end of the 1990s, the population of the cities of Vantaa (171.3 thousand), Oulu (113.6 thousand), Lahti (95.8 thousand), Kuopio (85.8 thousand), Pori (76.6 thousand) ), Jyväskylä, Kotka, Lappeenranta, Vaasa and Joensuu (from 76.2 thousand to 45.4 thousand). Many cities are surrounded by vast forests. In south-central Finland, the cities of Tampere, Lahti and Hämeenlinna form a large industrial complex. The two largest cities in Finland - Helsinki and Turku - are located on the sea coast.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Political system.

Finland is a republic. The main document defining it government structure, is the 2001 constitution, which significantly modernized the first constitution adopted in 1919. The supreme executive power belongs to the president, elected for a six-year term by direct popular vote (since 1988). Previously, he was elected by the Electoral College. The President has broad powers: he appoints and dismisses the Prime Minister and members of the government; in addition, it approves laws and has the right of relative veto. The president is the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces and directs its foreign policy, deciding issues of war and peace with the consent of parliament. The President appoints a person representing a party or coalition to form a government.

Executive power is vested in the State Council (Cabinet of Ministers) of 16 members, headed by the Prime Minister. The government must have the support of the parliamentary majority when making decisions on fundamental issues. If no party has a majority, the government is formed on a coalition basis.

The parliament is unicameral. It consists of 200 deputies elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term by universal suffrage. All adult citizens have the right to vote. Parliament concentrates all legislative power and has the power to approve all appointments and ratify treaties and other international agreements.

In the Finnish legal system, primary proceedings are based on a network of district courts (for rural areas) and municipal courts (for cities). District courts consist of 5-7 jurors and a judge who presides over the sessions and he alone has the right to pronounce verdicts, sometimes contrary to the unanimous opinion of the jury. Sessions of municipal courts are conducted by the burgomaster (mayor) with two or more judicial assistants. For appellate proceedings, there are six appellate courts in different parts of the country, consisting of several judges (three of them form a quorum). The Supreme Court is located in Helsinki. In some cases it conducts primary proceedings, but usually considers requests for clemency, hears appeals and decides questions about the constitutionality of certain laws and actions. The judicial system includes a high administrative court and several special courts, for example for land, labor and insurance matters. The courts are subordinate to the Ministry of Justice, which, however, does not interfere in court decisions. The police are under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior. The activities of both the judiciary and the police are controlled by parliament.

Local control.

Administratively, Finland has been divided into 6 provinces (lani) since the end of 1997, which are governed by governors appointed by the president. The province of Ahvenanmaa (Åland Islands), with a predominantly Swedish population, enjoys broad autonomy. It has its own parliament and flag, and is represented in the parliament of the entire country by one deputy. The lowest administrative-territorial unit - the community - is responsible for municipal services and collects its own tax. In 1997, there were 78 urban and 443 rural communities in the country. Communities are governed by councils, whose members are elected for four-year terms by proportional representation.

Political parties.

The Social Democratic Party of Finland (SDPF) relies on the support of industrial workers and employees. The Finnish Social Democrats, like other socialist parties in Europe, have essentially abandoned their original goal of transferring industry to state ownership, but continue to advocate economic planning and improvements in the social security system. Prominent SDPF figure Mauno Koivisto served two terms as President of Finland (1982–1994). He was replaced by Martti Ahtisaari (also a Social Democrat). The Democratic People's Union of Finland (DSNF), formerly a pro-Soviet coalition of left-wing parties, was until 1990 influenced by the Communist Party of Finland (CPF), which since the 1960s has been divided into a moderate “majority” and a Stalinist “minority.” In 1990, the DSNF merged with other leftist groups to form the Finnish Left Union (LFF). The Finnish Center Party (PFC, until 1965 - the Agrarian Union, until 1988 - the Center Party) has been part of almost every coalition since 1947. President Urho Kekkonen (from 1956 to 1981) emerged from its ranks. This party played a leading role in the coalition government from 1991 to 1995. The PFC represents the interests of farmers, but is increasingly supported by the urban population. The conservative National Coalition Party (NCP) opposes government control of the economy but advocates expanding social programs. The Swedish People's Party (SNP) reflects the interests of the Swedish-speaking population. The Finnish Country Party (SPF) split from the Agrarian Union in 1959 and gained significant influence in the late 1960s, reflecting the opposition movement of small farmers. Established in the late 1970s, the Green Union of Finland (NGF), which advocates environmental protection, has been permanently represented in parliament since 1983, and in 1995 became part of the coalition government. This is the first time the green movement has achieved such success in Europe.

From 1966 to 1991, the SDPF was the most influential party, receiving between 23% and 29% of the vote. It was followed by DSNF, NKP and PFC, each with between 14% and 21% of the votes. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government coalition was usually led by the SDPF or PFC. Communists participated in the government in 1966–1971, 1975–1976 and 1977–1982. In the 1987 parliamentary elections, non-socialist parties received a majority of votes (for the first time since 1946), although representatives of the SDPF entered the government led by the NKP, following the traditional Finnish policy of compromise. An anti-socialist orientation also manifested itself in the 1991 elections, when the SDPF retreated to second place and the PFC formed a government with the participation of representatives of the NKP, SPF and the Christian Union (CU). In the 1995 elections, the SDPF again took first place and formed a coalition government with the NCP, LSF, SNP and SZF.

Armed forces.

According to the terms of the peace treaty of 1947, the armed forces of Finland were not to exceed 41.9 thousand people. After the unification of Germany in 1990, Finland itself began to regulate the size of its army. In 1997, the country's armed forces numbered 32.8 thousand people, of which 75% were conscripts. There were approx. in stock. 700 thousand persons who have undergone military training. The navy has less than 60 vessels, including 2 corvettes, 11 missile carriers, 10 patrol vessels and 7 minelayers. The air force consists of three fighter squadrons and one transport squadron.

Military expenditures for the 1998–1999 fiscal year amounted to $1.8 million, or 2% of GDP.

Foreign policy.

According to the peace treaty of 1947 and the agreement of 1948 on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance between the USSR and Finland, the latter was limited in the development of external relations: it could not join organizations whose members posed a threat to the security of the USSR. Therefore, Finland did not join either the Warsaw Pact or NATO. In 1955 Finland was admitted to the UN, and in 1956 it became a member of the Nordic Council, an intergovernmental body of the Scandinavian countries. Since 1961, Finland has been an associate member of the European Free Trade Association, and since 1986 it has been a full member of this organization. The main direction of foreign policy after the Second World War was for Finland to maintain good relations with the USSR, which brought the country large economic income, primarily thanks to the capacious Soviet market. After the collapse of the USSR, Finland applied for admission to the EEC in 1992 and became a member of the EU in 1995. In January 1992, the Treaty on the Fundamentals of Relations between Russia and Finland was signed, which meant the termination of the 1948 treaty. The new treaty, concluded for 10 years, guarantees the inviolability of the borders of both countries.

ECONOMY

The country has limited mineral reserves, and its significant hydropower resources are not used efficiently. The country's main wealth is forests, and its economy has traditionally been linked to forest resources. Industries based on wood processing have long prevailed, and agriculture, which was the main occupation of the population before the Second World War, has always been combined with forestry. In the post-war period, the country's economy became much more diverse. According to the peace treaty of 1947, Finland ceded significant territory to the USSR and took on the heavy burden of paying reparations. These circumstances served as an impetus for the growth and diversification of industrial production. As a result, industry overtook agriculture in its development and took a leading place in the Finnish economy. New industries emerged in the country, in particular metallurgy, mechanical engineering and shipbuilding, which turned out to be more competitive than the timber processing industries.

Gross domestic product (GDP) and employment.

In 2002, Finland's GDP (the value of all market goods and services) amounted to 133.8 billion marks, or per capita $25,800 versus $28,283. The share of agriculture in GDP reached 4% in 2002 (in 1990 - 3.4%). Overall, in 2003 the primary sector (agriculture and mining) accounted for 4.3% of GDP, the secondary sector (manufacturing and construction) 32.7% and the tertiary sector (services) 62.9%. Finnish citizens pay the highest taxes in the world, which total 48.2% of GDP. During the period 1980–1989, GDP grew at an average rate of 3.1% per year (adjusted for inflation). Then the decline began: in 1991, GDP decreased by 6%, in 1992 - by 4%, in 1993 - by 3%. From 1994 to 1997, real GDP growth was respectively 4.5%, 5.1%, 3.6% and 6.0%, and in 2003 – 1.9%.

After World War II there were major changes in the structure of employment. In 1997, only 7.6% of the working population was employed in agriculture and forestry (compared to 44% in 1948), 27.8% in industry and construction (30% in 1948) and 64.2% in management and services. (26% in 1948). Unemployment, which hovered around 2% in the early 1970s, increased towards the end of that decade and again in the early 1990s, reaching 16.4% in 1994. It fell to 9% in 2003.

Economical geography.

A third of Finland's area is located beyond the Arctic Circle. This is a sparsely populated area with pine and birch woodlands and rapids rivers with large reserves of hydroelectric power. In contrast, in the southwest lie fertile plains with mechanized farms and numerous cities and towns. This densely populated area has access to the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland. On the land side, it is limited by a line running from the city of Pori on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia to the city of Kotka, the largest export port in Finland at the mouth of the Kymijoki River. The main industrial center is the capital city of Helsinki. Industrial planning is the most striking feature of its development in the 20th century. Half of the country's manufacturing enterprises are concentrated in the Helsinki region. Engineering factories produce machine tools, agricultural machinery, dynamos, electric motors and ships. Helsinki is also home to food and chemical industries, printing plants and world-famous factories producing glass and porcelain dishes. Turku, the main port in southwestern Finland, ranks third among mechanical engineering centers and first among shipbuilding centers in the country. Tampere, the largest industrial center in the interior of Finland, is known as one of the main centers of the textile industry in the Scandinavian countries. There are also various machine-building enterprises there. However, in recent years there has been a reduction in production in the shipbuilding and textile industries.

Beyond southwestern Finland, with its towns and prosperous farms, lies a vast transition zone that includes the Lake District. Forest-related industries predominate here. In some settlements there are pulp and paper mills. Along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia there is an economically underdeveloped area with a compact Swedish-speaking population. In the cities of Vaasa and Oulu, ancient centers of timber trade, there are sawmills and wood processing plants producing pulp, paper and other goods. Today Finland continues to be one of the world's leading producers of high-quality paper.

Organization of production.

In Finland, most companies and corporations are owned by individuals. Hydroelectric power plants and railways are state property, and the state largely regulates business activities. The transfer of land from one owner to another is also strictly controlled by the state. Approximately 1/3 of retail trade is concentrated in the hands of cooperatives, but large private marketing companies play a leading role in trade. Finnish farmers use the services of consumer, production and marketing cooperatives. In addition, cooperative banks provide loans for the purchase of land and modernization of farms to increase output. Through the Bank of Finland, the government sets interest rates and discount rates and thus effectively controls lending operations. Finland pursues a policy of actively attracting foreign investment.

Agriculture.

Before World War II, agriculture was the main occupation of the population. After the war, peasants who arrived from areas ceded to the USSR received land plots, and many small farms were organized in this way. Currently, small peasant farms predominate in the country. Limited opportunities for expansion of agricultural production and increased mechanization of farms contributed to a significant reduction in the number of people employed in this industry, while the income of the remainder increased significantly. Finland had to lift traditional restrictions on imports of agricultural products, as this was a prerequisite for joining the EU. Production of dairy products, meat and eggs exceeds domestic demand, and these commodities dominate agricultural exports. Some specific products are also exported, such as smoked venison. Overall, agricultural products accounted for only 1.3% of export revenues in 1997.

Livestock farming, especially dairy cattle, pigs and broilers, is an important specialized branch of Finnish agriculture. In 1997, there were approx. 1140 thousand dairy cows – slightly more than in previous years. On the contrary, the number of reindeer decreased and in 1997 amounted to 203 thousand heads. Most of the arable area is sown with forage grasses, mainly a grass mixture of ryegrass, timothy and clover. Potatoes and fodder beets are also grown.

Cultivation of commercial food crops in Finland is limited due to the short growing season and the constant danger of frost, even during the growing season. The country is located beyond the northern borders of the cultivation of major grain crops and is located away from the Atlantic coast with its mild climate. Wheat can be grown only in the extreme southwest, rye and potatoes - up to 66° N, barley - up to 68° N, oats - up to 65° N. With the exception of years with unfavorable growing conditions, Finland is 85% self-sufficient in grain (mainly oats, barley and wheat). The development of grain farming was facilitated by the improvement of land reclamation methods, the widespread use of fertilizers and the breeding of cold-resistant varieties. Wheat and other grain crops, along with sugar beets, are grown on the fertile clay plains of the southwest, apples, cucumbers and onions - on the Åland Islands, tomatoes - in greenhouses in the south of the former. Governorate of Vaasa (Österbotten).

In Finland, agriculture and forestry are inextricably linked. Most peasants, along with arable land, own significant forest areas. Over 60% of forested land belongs to farmers. In the early 1990s, on average approx. Farmers received 1/6 of their income from timber harvesting (their share is lower in the more fertile southern regions and higher in the northern and central). Thanks to this source, the income of many Finnish peasants is very high, which allows them to purchase equipment and compensate for crop losses (in many areas of central and northern Finland, crop failures occur approximately once every four years).

Forestry.

Finland's forests constitute its greatest natural wealth. The wood is used to produce plywood, pulp, paper and other materials. In 1997, the value of exports of forest products (timber, pulp and paper) accounted for 30.7% of all export earnings, which was much less than in 1968 (61%). However, Finland was still the world's second largest exporter of paper and cardboard after Canada.

Forests, consisting mainly of pine, spruce and birch, are the country's main resource. In 1987–1991, on average, 44 million cubic meters of forest were cut down per year, and in 1997 - 53 million cubic meters. m. Of the other Scandinavian countries, only Sweden has a similar indicator. Deforestation was a cause for concern back in the early 1960s, as logging exceeded natural growth. In 1995, a plan for forest protection and forestry development was developed. In order to use forest resources in the north and east of the country, logging roads were laid and the reclamation network was expanded. In the more productive southern and central regions, where 60% of all timber reserves are concentrated, fertilization and reforestation were widely used. As a result, the annual increase in timber reserves in the 1970s was 1.5%, and in the 1980s - 4%. In 1998, natural growth exceeded the volume of felling by 20 million cubic meters.

Fishing,

important for domestic consumption, supplies only a small share of products for export. The number of people employed exclusively in this industry decreased from 2.4 thousand in 1967 to 1.2 thousand in 1990, and the total value of the catch increased from 10.3 million dollars in 1967 to 42.1 million in 1990 In 1995, fish catch in Finland reached 184.3 thousand tons.

Mining industry.

Mineral reserves in Finland are small, and their mining began relatively recently. In 1993, it accounted for less than 1% of the total value of industrial output. Among minerals, zinc is the most important, but Finland's share in world production is small. The next place is occupied by copper, which is mined at the Outokumpu and Pyhäsalmi mines, followed by iron ore and vanadium. Metal ores amount to approx. 40% of the value of mining products. Valuable deposits of nickel ores were transferred to the USSR in 1945, but this loss was partly compensated for by subsequently discovered deposits of copper, nickel, lead and zinc. Several new iron ore deposits have been explored on the seabed near the island of Yussarø and the Åland Islands. Tornio mines chromium and nickel, which are used to produce alloy steel.

Energy.

Finland has a large hydroelectric potential, but it is only half used, since the development of these resources is complicated due to small differences in altitude. In 1995, total electricity generation was 65 billion kWh (versus 118 billion in Norway, with its smaller population). More than half of Finland's hydropower capacity is concentrated in hydroelectric power plants built on the Kemijoki rivers in the far north, Oulujoki with its tributaries in the center and Vironkoski in the southeast. Almost all heavy industry in Finland is based on the consumption of large amounts of electricity. The country's railways are largely electrified. Finland ranks second in the world in peat production; in 1997 it accounted for 7% of the country's energy balance. Approximately 51% of energy comes from imported oil, coal and natural gas, which until 1991 came mainly from the USSR. Nuclear energy began to develop in the 1970s, when two nuclear power plants were built near Helsinki. The reactors and fuel for them were supplied by the USSR. In the 1980s, two more nuclear power plants were built, purchased from Sweden. In 1997, nuclear energy accounted for 17% of the country's energy balance.

Manufacturing industry

Finland is still characterized by numerous small enterprises and cottage industries, but after the Second World War the number of large enterprises has increased significantly. The share of industry and construction in 1997 accounted for approx. 35.4% of total production and 27% of employment.

The manufacturing industry is dominated by forestry industries producing pulp, paper and lumber. In 1996, their share accounted for 18% of the country's industrial output. Approximately 2/3 of the products of these industries are exported. Softwood processing is concentrated on the coast of the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia and in the Gulf of Finland region, where raw materials come from the Lake District. About 30% of paper products are newsprint; In addition, cardboard, wrapping paper and high-quality paper for banknotes, shares and other valuable documents are produced. Lumber was an important export commodity as early as the mid-19th century. At the beginning of the 1970s, there were half as many sawmills operating in Finland as at the beginning of the 20th century, but the output of this industry remained at the 1913 level (7.5 million cubic meters per year). In the mid-1970s, lumber production decreased significantly, and then began to grow again and in 1989 reached 7.7 million cubic meters. m. The main center of sawmilling is the city of Kemi on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia. The woodworking industry in Finland originated at the very beginning of the 20th century. More than 20 plywood factories are concentrated in the east of the Lake District, in an area of ​​large tracts of birch forests.

After World War II, metallurgy and mechanical engineering began to develop intensively in Finland. These industries arose in connection with the need to pay reparations to the USSR in the form of ships, machine tools, electric cables and other goods. In 1996, metallurgy and mechanical engineering accounted for 42% of all industrial employment, and these industries accounted for over 1/4 of all industrial output. In 1997, these industries provided 46% of the country's export earnings (in 1950 - only 5%). A large modern metallurgical plant is located in Raahe, and smaller plants exist in many cities in southwestern Finland. The steel produced in Rautaruukki meets the special requirements of the Arctic regions.

They also produce machines and equipment for pulp and paper mills, agricultural machinery, tankers and icebreakers, cables, transformers, generators and electric motors.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Finland became a major manufacturer of cell phones (Nokia). The leading Finnish producer in the fuel industry is the oil company Neste, which produces gasoline and diesel fuel that is resistant to extreme cold.

The chemical industry also began to develop after World War II. In 1997, it accounted for 10% of the value of industrial output and 10% of export earnings. This industry produces synthetic fibers and plastics from wood waste, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and cosmetics. Finland has also become famous for its high-quality handicrafts - decorative fabrics, furniture and glassware.

The large dairy enterprise Valio Oy is known far beyond the country as a producer of high-quality cheeses (Marta Viola), baby food, breast milk substitutes and artificial nutrition.

Transport and communications.

The Finnish State Railways are concentrated in the southern part of the country. Their total length is 5900 km, and only 1600 km are electrified. Although the highway system was expanded and the private car fleet grew greatly in the 1960s and 1970s, traffic volumes in Finland are still low compared to other Scandinavian countries. In summer, bus service is maintained up to the extreme northern regions. The length of highways reaches 80 thousand km. The 6,100 km network of navigable waterways, including canals between numerous lakes, is extremely important for passenger and freight transport. In winter, navigation through the canals is carried out with the help of icebreakers.

In 1998, Finland had more mobile phones per capita (50.1 per 100 inhabitants) than any other country in the world. Nokia Corporation, founded in Finland and headquartered there, is the world's largest manufacturer of mobile phones. Finland is also a leader in the development of the Internet system; in 1998, 88 people were connected to it for every 1000 inhabitants, and there were 654 servers for every 100 thousand inhabitants. Universities have a particularly high level of use of this communication system.

International trade.

The Finnish economy, like its neighboring Scandinavian countries, is heavily dependent on foreign trade. In 1997, imports and exports together accounted for 65% of GDP, the value of imports was 30.9 billion dollars, exports were 40.9 billion dollars. Metallurgy and mechanical engineering products are the largest source of export earnings (43.3%), followed by wood processing and chemical industries. Finland imports mainly industrial raw materials, fuels, transport equipment and chemical products.

In the decades following World War II, Finland's foreign trade balance generally ran a small deficit. The huge increase in oil prices on the world market in 1973–1974 and in 1979 forced to limit imports and restore the balance of foreign trade. However, at the same time, Finland's overall balance of payments, including services and financial intermediation, fell sharply into deficit as the high standard of living was maintained by foreign loans. In 1972, the Finnish government and banks had an external debt of $700 million, but in 1997 this fell to $32.4 million (mainly due to the sharp rise in prices in the late 1980s). From 1980 to 1993 there was a constant foreign trade deficit, and it reached its highest level - $5.1 billion - in 1991. However, over the next few years, the value of Finland's exports increased significantly, and in 1997 the foreign trade balance became positive (+ 6, 6 billion dollars).

The majority of Finland's foreign trade (60% of imports and 60% of exports in 1997) is with Western European countries, especially Germany, Sweden and the UK, where pulp and paper products are mainly exported. Trade with the former USSR was conducted primarily on a barter basis, formalized in five-year agreements; in the early 1980s, Finland sent up to 25% of its exports there, especially metallurgy and engineering products, as well as ready-made clothing in exchange for oil and natural gas. When in 1991 Finland decided to transfer foreign trade transactions to convertible currency, exports to Russia fell to 5%. This had a particularly strong impact on the state of the shipbuilding and textile industries, which had long worked for the stable Soviet market.

Monetary system and banks.

The monetary unit until 2002 was the Finnish mark, issued by the Central Bank of Finland. Government revenues in 1997 amounted to $36.6 billion, of which 29% came from income and real estate taxes, 53% from sales and other indirect taxes, and 9% from social security contributions. Expenditures amounted to $36.6 billion, of which 30% was for social security and housing construction, 23% for servicing external debt, 14% for education, 9% for health care and 5% for defense. In 1997, public debt reached $80.4 billion, of which 2/3 was owed to foreign creditors. Finland's foreign exchange reserves in the same year were estimated at $8.9 billion.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

In general, Finnish society is quite homogeneous. The presence of two main ethnic groups - Finnish and Swedish - in modern conditions does not create any serious problems. The country's social unity has stood the test of time. The influx of immigrants from Karelia after World War II created social and economic difficulties, but they were quickly overcome.

Organization of society.

Despite the equalizing effect of the income tax, in 1997 persons receiving more than 250 thousand marks per year accounted for 2.9% of all taxpayers, and they accounted for 12.5% ​​of all income. This group paid 18.1% of all taxes. In contrast, in the same year, persons earning less than 60 thousand marks per year accounted for 42% of all taxpayers and accounted for 16.1% of all income. This group paid 6.6% of all taxes. Despite this obvious inequality, in 1997 the Gini index (a statistical measure of income inequality) in Finland was 25.6%, i.e. was one of the lowest in the world.

Organizations of industrialists and traders.

The economic groups of the Finnish population are highly cohesive. In agriculture there is the Central Union of Agricultural Producers, in forestry there is the Central Union of the Finnish Forest Industry, and in industry there is the Central Union of Industrialists and Employers (CSPR), which expanded significantly in 1993 due to the merger of a number of business associations. The country has a Federation of Foreign Trade Groups and a Central Organization of Shipowners. To encourage the production of artistic textiles, ceramics and furniture for which the country is famous, an organization has been established to promote the development of Finnish handicrafts. Most other trade groups also have their own associations.

Consumer cooperation plays a significant role in the economic life of Finland. There are two main groups of cooperatives - one for farmers (Central Association of Cooperatives), the other for workers (Central Union of Consumer Cooperatives). Together, in the mid-1990s, they united 1.4 million members and controlled almost 1/3 of retail trade.

Trade union movement

Finland is widespread. Currently, there are three large workers' associations: The Central Organization of Trade Unions of Finland (COPF), founded in 1907 and numbering almost 1.1 million members in 1997. The organization of trade unions of workers with higher education, operating since 1950 and numbering 230 thousand people, the Central Union of Technical Workers, formed in 1946 and uniting 130 thousand people. The central organization of trade unions of officials and employees, founded in 1922 and numbering approx. 400 thousand members, functioned until its dissolution in 1992. In its place, more than 12 independent trade unions arose.

TsOFP and independent trade unions enter into collective agreements with the TsSPR, which unites approximately 6.3 thousand employers. Most of these agreements apply to the entire industry and not to an individual enterprise. Government bodies - the economic council and the wage council - monitor compliance with the contracts.

Religion in the life of society.

The State Lutheran Church does not interfere in the activities of other religious movements. Although among believers there is sometimes dissent and indifference towards the state church, in the western, central and northern regions it enjoys very great influence. The Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church is engaged in active missionary activities. Finnish missionaries work in Asian and African countries. In Finland itself, the Young People's Christian Association, the Women's Christian Youth Association are active, and among adults there are various organizations of the Finnish Free Church. Religious activities themselves are the responsibility of the bishops, and financially the church is accountable to the state. During the interwar period, the Lutheran Church supported conservative and right-wing circles (in particular, the Lapua movement) in the fight against Social Democrats and Communists, although the clergy themselves were not members of secular organizations.

The status of women.

Universal suffrage was introduced in 1906. Finland was the first European country to give women the right to vote. It is not uncommon for women to occupy ministerial positions and the highest professional positions everywhere except the church. In 1995, among the 200 deputies of parliament, there were 67 women (and in 1991 - 77).

In 1996 in Finland, 61.4% of women aged 25 to 54 were working, a record high even for industrialized countries, although in 1986 the figure was even higher - 65%. Over 80% of women are employed in the service sector, and women make up almost half of the staff of government organizations and agencies.

Social Security.

A broad legislative framework underlies the social security system and the protection of citizens. There is a system of compulsory old age and disability insurance, financed mainly by employers. To smooth out the effects of inflation, the state subsidizes old-age pensions. State social security programs pay unemployment benefits, maternity benefits, care for infants and large families, and also finance kindergartens and after-school groups in schools. Health insurance covers most of the costs of outpatient and inpatient treatment in public clinics. According to the National Health Law of 1972, free medical centers were established in all municipalities. In 1998, Finland ranked fifth in the world in terms of quality of life (when determining this indicator, the state of health care, standard of living, life expectancy, income and the realization of women's rights were taken into account).

CULTURE

Finnish culture up to the 20th century. experienced significant Swedish influence. The long stay within Russia had little effect on the development of Finnish culture. After gaining independence in 1917, the Finns emphasized the national identity of their cultural heritage, and accordingly the role of Swedish culture began to decline (with the exception of areas with a predominance of Swedish-speaking populations).

Education.

In 1997, Finland spent 7.2% of GDP on education and ranked first among developed countries in terms of this indicator. Education in the country is free at all levels up to university and compulsory for all children aged 7 to 16 years. Illiteracy has been almost completely eliminated. In 1997 approx. 400 thousand children studied in primary schools and 470 thousand in secondary schools, incl. 125 thousand in vocational schools. In 1997, there were 142.8 thousand students at the country's universities, incl. in the following cities: Helsinki - 37 thousand, Tampere - 15 thousand, Turku - 15 thousand (university teaching in Finnish) and 6 thousand (university teaching in Swedish - Abo Academy), Oulu - 14 thousand. , Jyväskylä – 12 thousand. Joensuu - 9 thousand, Kuopio - 4 thousand and Rovaniemi (University of Lapland) - 2 thousand. Another 62.3 thousand students studied in technical, veterinary, agricultural, trade and teacher training colleges. The network of educational institutions of this type is developing rapidly. In addition, adult education programs have been established, covering more than 25% of the working population.

Literature and art.

At the origins of Finnish literature, music and folklore lies an outstanding national epic Kalevala, collected by Elias Lönrot in 1849. Its influence can be seen in the works of prominent Finnish writers Alexis Kivi and F.E. Sillanpää, as well as in the music of Jean Sibelius. In the 19th century the prominent poet and author of the national anthem of Finland, Johan Runeberg, and the master of the historical novel, Tsakarias Topelius, wrote in Swedish. At the end of the 19th century. A galaxy of realist writers appeared: Minna Kant, Juhani Aho, Arvid Järnefelt, Teuvo Pakkala, Ilmari Kianto. In the 20th century they were joined by Maiju Lassila, Johannes Linnankoski, Joel Lehtonen. At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. poets J.H. Erkko, Eino Leino and Edith Södergran wrote.

After the First World War, a number of new writers appeared on the literary arena: Nobel Prize winner France Emil Sillanpää, author of novels about rural life in western Finland, Toivo Pekkanen, who described the life of workers in the city of Kotka, Aino Kallas, whose works were dedicated to Estonia, Unto Seppänen, a writer of everyday life of a Karelian village, and Pentti Haanpää, a gifted writer, a master of artistic expression. Väine Linn's novels about the Second World War became very popular ( Unknown Soldier) and about landless peasants ( Here, under the Northern Star). In post-war literature, the social novel experienced a new flourishing (Aili Nordgren, Martti Larney, K. Chilman, etc.). In the genre of historical novel, Mika Valtari, the author of the acclaimed Egyptian.

Among Finnish playwrights, the most famous are Maria Jotuni, Hella Vuolioki and Ilmari Turja, and among poets - Eino Leino, V.A. Koskenniemi, Katri Vala and Paavo Haavikko.

Ancient architectural ensemble, adjacent to the medieval cathedral, has been preserved in the city of Turku. The old center of Helsinki was built mainly according to the designs of Carl Engel in the first half of the 19th century. This wonderful monument of the Empire architectural style has great similarities with the ensembles of St. Petersburg. At the beginning of the 20th century. Finnish architecture clearly showed national romanticism, strengthening the connection between the building and its natural environment. The buildings themselves were distinguished by their picturesque and decorative interpretation of architectural forms, resurrecting images of Finnish folklore; Local natural stone was widely used in construction. The most famous works are buildings National Museum Finland, National Theatre, Scandinavian Bank and railway station in Helsinki. Leading figures in this movement were Eliel Saarinen, Lars Sonck, Armas Lindgren and Hermann Gesellius. National romanticism has firmly entered the history of world architecture.

Functionalism, introduced in Finland by Alvar Aalto and Eric Bruggman in the interwar period, promoted the free organization of volumes and spaces, asymmetry of compositions, and ease of planning. The telephone exchange building and the Tampere Cathedral, created by Lars Sonck, are considered masterpieces of this movement. Practical and comfortable residential buildings, schools, hospitals, shops, and industrial enterprises were built. The aesthetic value of these buildings lies in their very design, made without excessive ornamentation.

In the post-war period, the main attention was paid to the problems of mass housing and public construction. Simplicity and rigor of architectural forms, along with the widespread use of modern building structures (development of the satellite cities of Helsinki Tapiola and Otaniemi) are characteristic of the work of many outstanding masters (Alvar Aalto, Eric Bruggman, Viljo Revell, Heikki Siren, A. Ervi). Under the influence of the ideas of structuralism, there appeared residential complexes with compact development of asymmetrical, geometrically clear groups of houses (Kortepohja district in Jyväskylä, Hakunila district in Helsinki, etc.). Recognized contemporary architects are Reima Pietilä, Timo Penttila and Juha Leiviskää, winner of the Carlsberg Prize 1995. Timo Sarpaneva is the winner of many international design competitions.

Fine art of Finland in the 19th century. maintained close contacts with leading European schools in Paris, Dusseldorf, and St. Petersburg. In 1846 the Finnish Art Society was founded. The foundations of national landscape painting were laid by V. Holmberg, J. Munsterhjelm, B. Lindholm and V. Vesterholm. The moralizing, somewhat sentimental paintings of A. von Becker and K. Janson are in the tradition of late modernism. The von Wright brothers created romantic rural landscapes.

Late 19th century considered the “golden age” of Finnish painting. At this time, the artistic movement “Young Finland” emerged, developing the ideas of independence and service to the people. Democratic tendencies in Finnish painting, close to the traditions of the Peredvizhniki in Russia, were reflected in the works of Albert Edelfelt (the first Finnish artist to become famous outside his country), Eero Järnefelt and Pekka Halonen. The largest representative of national romanticism in painting was Akseli Gallen-Kallela, who repeatedly turned to the subjects of Finnish epic and folklore. The original talent of Juho Rissanen was attracted by scenes of folk life. An outstanding portrait painter was A. Faven. High level Female painters Maria Wiik and Helena Schjerfbeck distinguished themselves in their skill.

Painting of the early 20th century. was strongly influenced by French impressionism. Many Finnish artists, such as Gösta Diehl and Erkki Kulovesi, studied in Paris. This direction was promoted by the creative association “Septem”, founded by Magnus Enkell. Then the competing “November Group” of expressionists was formed under the leadership of Tyko Sallinen. Then the passion of Finnish artists for modernism, abstractionism and constructivism emerged.

The development of secular sculpture in Finland began only in the mid-19th century. The first masters, of whom Johannes Takanen was the most talented, adhered to the traditions of classicism. Later, the realistic movement strengthened, whose representatives were Robert Stiegel, Emil Wikström, Alpo Sailo, Yrjö Liipola and Gunnar Finne.

After the First World War, Finnish sculpture gained worldwide fame thanks to the outstanding master Väinö Aaltonen. For the bronze statue of runner Paavo Nurmi, Olympic champion, Aaltonen received the Grand Prix at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937. He created a whole gallery of sculptural images of Finnish cultural and artistic figures. Sculptors such as Aimo Tukiainen, Kalervo Kallio and Erkki Kannosto are widely known in the country and abroad. According to the design of female sculptor Eila Hiltunen, a monumental monument to Jean Sibelius was erected on a rock in a picturesque corner of Helsinki, imitating a majestic organ made of steel pipes of different sizes, connected into a powerful rhythmic composition. Placed on a nearby rock sculptural portrait the great composer, also made of steel.

Finnish music is identified mainly with the work of Jean Sibelius. Other Finnish composers successfully searched for new forms, and here such masters as Selim Palmgren, Yrjö Kilpinen (composer-songwriter), Armas Järnefelt (writer of romances, choral and symphonic music) and Uuno Klami became especially famous. Oscar Mericanto became famous as the author of the opera Maiden of the North, and Arre Mericanto created atonal music. Opera by Aulis Sallinen Rider was a great success and influenced the formation of modern opera art. Esa-Pekka Salonen is one of the country's most famous conductors. There are symphony orchestras in Helsinki, Turku, Tampere and Lahti, and there are choirs and singing groups even in small villages. Among the numerous theaters, the leading positions are occupied by the Finnish Ballet, the Finnish National Theatre, the Finnish National Opera and the Swedish Theater. The city of Savonlinna hosts opera festivals every July. Finland ranks first in the world in terms of subsidies for the maintenance of theaters and museums (more than $100 per year per resident of the country).

The science.

Scientific work is carried out at universities, and the coordination of research and the distribution of funds is carried out by the Academy of Finland, founded in 1947. Among the main tasks facing scientists was obtaining clear information about the nature and natural resources of the country. The works of Finnish geologists made it possible to clarify the fundamental problems of the structure of the Baltic Shield and evaluate its mineral resources. In Finland, for the first time in the world, a complete forest taxation was carried out under the leadership of Yrjö Ilvessalo in 1921–1924. A.K. Kayander conducted geobotanical expeditions in the north of the European part of Russia, in Siberia and Central Europe. He developed the doctrine of forest types, and the classification he proposed was successfully applied in many other countries. On his initiative, the first experimental forestry stations were created in Finland. In 1922, 1924 and 1937–1939, Kajander headed the government of Finland.

An outstanding scientist and Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, Artturi Virtanen, conducted research on the production of proteins and biochemical nitrogen fixation, and also found a way to preserve green feed. The Finnish school of mathematics (Lars Ahlfors, Ernst Lindelöf and Rolf Nevanlinna) contributed to the development of the theory of analytic functions. There are great achievements in the fields of mechanics, geodesy, and astronomy. Significant research has been carried out on Finno-Ugric philology, archeology, and ethnography. The Finnish Literary Society (founded in 1831) and the Finno-Ugric Society (founded in 1883) played a major role in carrying out this work. The first of them published dozens of volumes of folklore materials in the series Ancient poetry of the Finnish people.

Largest scientific center of Finland - University of Helsinki. Its library contains all the publications of scientists in this country. In 1997, Finland ranked seventh in the world in the number of scientific workers - 3675 per 1 million inhabitants.

The people of Finland love to read. In 1997, on average, for every resident of this country there were 19.7 books issued by public libraries. The developed library system is able to satisfy the needs of residents of the most remote areas of the country.

Mass media.

In 1997, more than 200 newspapers were published in Finland, including 56 daily newspapers (8 in Swedish). Largest newspapers – Helsingit Sanomat (independent), Aamulehti (NCP organ) in Tampere and Turun Sanomat (to Turku). The official organ of the SDPF is “Demari” , and LSF – “Kansan Uutiset” . The country produces the world's largest number of books per capita; in 1997 it was published approx. 11 thousand items.

Until 1984, there was a state monopoly on radio and television broadcasting. Currently, there are four state television channels and seven state radio stations. Broadcasting is conducted in two languages ​​– Finnish (75%) and Swedish (25%). Private television companies buy airtime from the government.

Sport.

At the international level, Finnish athletes have a long history of excellence in cross-country skiing and ski jumping. Many world records were also set in athletics, victories were won in wrestling and ice hockey. Mass sports are widely developed in the country, especially ice hockey, orienteering, football, skiing, rowing, motorcycling and gymnastics.

Customs and holidays.

Has firmly entered the everyday life of the Finns sauna – sauna heated with dry steam. There are approx. 1.5 million saunas (i.e. one for every three inhabitants). Regular visits to the sauna have become a tradition not only in rural areas, but also in cities.

In Finland, the longest day of the year is celebrated on June 24th. This massive folk festival called “Juhannus” (Midsummer's Day, or the day of remembrance of John the Baptist), has ancient roots. On this day, people go to their dachas and to their relatives in the village. It is customary to celebrate all night long, throwing away everyday worries, lighting large bonfires and practicing fortune-telling. Other secular holidays – May Day; June 4, Memorial Day of Marshal Mannerheim. December 6th is Independence Day in Finland. Religious holidays - Epiphany, Good Friday (Friday of Holy Week), Easter, Ascension, Trinity, Christmas Eve and Christmas.

STORY

Ancient period.

At the beginning of our era, Finnish tribes that came from the east settled in the southern regions of what is now Finland, where they mixed with the local population. The Sami tribes, descendants of earlier Finno-Ugric migrants, were pushed north.

The ancestors of modern Finns were pagans, led a nomadic lifestyle and were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. The Suomi tribe lived in the southwest, the Khame tribe lived in the center, and the Karjala tribe lived in the east. Subsequently, the name “Suomi” was transferred to the entire country. The Finns came into contact with the Swedish tribes inhabiting the eastern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula and carried out a series of raids on their lands.

Swedish domination.

In response to these raids, the Swedes launched the First Crusade (1157) against the pagan Finns. It culminated in the conquest of southwestern Finland and the spread of Christianity there. During the Second Crusade (1249–1250), the central regions of southern Finland were conquered, and during the Third Crusade (1293–1300), Swedish power extended to the eastern regions. Fortresses were built on the conquered lands. Thus, the Swedish state penetrated into the eastern part of the Baltic region, but these same lands were claimed by Russia, which was looking for access to Europe by sea.

In 1323, the Orekhovetsky (Noteburg) Treaty was concluded between Sweden and Novgorod, which outlined the border between Finland and Russian lands.

Finland received some benefits from the union with Sweden, being integrated into Sweden. Since 1362, representatives of Finland have taken part in the election of the kings of Sweden. The adoption of a new religion was accompanied by the spread of European customs, morals and culture. Mixed marriages between Finns and Swedes expanded Finnish representation in local government. The rise of the Vasa dynasty in Sweden led to the establishment of a more effective government in Finland. The formation of the Finnish literary language dates back to the same time, the father of which was the priest Mikael Agricola, who began to translate the Bible into Finnish. Since 1548, church services began to be held in Finnish.

In the 17th century Sweden has made some improvements to the administrative system in Finland. The Swedish Governor-General Per Brahe introduced a court of appeal and founded a university in Turku, and also granted autonomy to cities. Representatives of Finland were admitted to the Swedish Riksdag. Although these reforms primarily affected the interests of the Swedish nobility living in Finland, local peasants also benefited from them to some extent.

The development of crafts and commodity-money relations began relatively early in the country. Along with agriculture, peasants were engaged in blacksmithing, weaving, tar smoking, and sawing timber. Mining began, and landowners founded small metallurgical plants that burned charcoal. Part of the products of landowner and state enterprises and products of peasant and guild crafts (resin, paper) was exported. In exchange, bread, salt and some other goods were imported.

Complicating Finland's position was its geographical location as a buffer between Russia and Sweden, which made it throughout the 15th and early 19th centuries. theater of military operations in the Russian-Swedish wars in the struggle for dominance in the Baltic. During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Finland was occupied by Russian troops. The war was accompanied by famine and epidemics, which killed almost half of the country's population. In 1721, only 250 thousand people remained in Finland. After Russia's victory in the Northern War under Peter I, the Treaty of Nystadt was concluded (1721), according to which Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and the Moozund Islands were ceded to Russia. Russia returned most of Finland to Sweden and paid 2 million efimki in compensation for the lands acquired by Russia.

In an effort to seize the lands conquered by Peter I from Russia, Sweden declared war on it in 1741, but a year later all of Finland was again in the hands of the Russians. According to the Abo Peace Treaty of 1743, the territory up to the river went to Russia. Kymijoki with the fortified cities of Vilmanstrand (Lappenranta) and Friedrichsgam (Hamina).

Autonomous Grand Duchy within Russia.

From the 70s to the 18th century. Separatist ideas began to emerge among the Finnish elite. Some prominent Finns dreamed of independence for the country (Georg Magnus Sprengtporten). These sentiments manifested themselves during the Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790, when the Swedish king Gustav III tried to regain the lost provinces.

The fate of Finland was also influenced by Sweden's hostile attitude towards Napoleon. At a meeting in Tilsit (1807), Alexander I and Napoleon agreed that if Sweden did not join the Continental blockade, Russia would declare war on it. When the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf rejected this demand, Russian troops invaded southern Finland in 1808 and began to advance west and then north. At first they were successful. South part The country where the bulk of the population lived was occupied by Russian troops. The Russian capture of the Sveaborg fortress, which was called the “Swedish Gibraltar in the North,” dealt a serious blow to Sweden. Alexander I announced the annexation of Finland to Russia, the population took an oath of allegiance. In the summer of 1808, the Swedes gathered their strength and stopped the enemy’s offensive for some time, but they failed to turn the tide of the war. In the autumn of 1808 they were driven out from the entire territory of Finland. Russian troops carried out raids on the Åland Islands and even on the territory of Sweden itself. In March 1809, King Gustav IV Adolf was overthrown. At the same time, representatives of the Finnish estates gathered in the city of Borgo (Porvoo), confirming the accession of Finland to Russia. The Diet was opened by Alexander I, who announced the granting of Finland the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy, preserving the previous Swedish laws. Swedish remained the official language. The war ended with the defeat of Sweden and the signing of the Friedrichsham Peace Treaty, according to which Finland ceded to Russia as a Grand Duchy and the Åland Islands. In 1809, the Grand Duchy of Finland was formed with its own Diet and a special commission for Finnish affairs was created (later renamed the Committee for Finnish Affairs). In 1812, Helsingfors (Helsinki) was declared the capital of the principality.

Finland enjoyed significant benefits and privileges. It received its own postal service and justice system, and, from the 1860s, its own Finnish monetary system. Finns were exempted from compulsory service in the Russian army. The well-being of the population grew, and its number increased from 1 million people in 1815 to 1.75 million in 1870.

The cultural life of Finland has revived. This was facilitated by the transfer of the university from Turku to the capital city of Helsinki. Johan Ludwig Runeberg, author Legends of Ensign Stol, and Elias Lenroth, creator of the epic Kalevala, influenced the growth of self-awareness of the Finnish people and laid the foundation for the study of their language and literature. Johan Wilhelm Snellman led the development movement school education and in 1863 he achieved the approval of the equality of the Finnish language with Swedish.

Rights of the Grand Duchy of Finland as an autonomy until the end of the 19th century. were not violated by the tsarist government. In the period from 1809 to 1863, the Finnish Diet did not meet, and the country was governed by the Senate under the Governor-General. The first meeting of the Sejm to develop a constitution was convened in 1863 on the initiative of Alexander II. Since 1869, the Sejm began to convene regularly, its composition was renewed every five years, and since 1882 - every three years. A multi-party system began to take shape. Finland has undergone deep structural reforms, primarily in the economy. The process of modernization of the country has accelerated.

During the reign of Nicholas II, under the influence of Russian military circles, a new policy began to be developed, aimed at the accelerated integration of Finland into the empire and the gradual curtailment of autonomy. First, an attempt was made to force the Finns to do military service in the Russian army. When the Senate, which had previously made concessions, rejected this demand, General Bobrikov introduced military courts. In response to this, in 1904 the Finns shot Bobrikov, and unrest began in the country. The Russian Revolution of 1905 coincided with the rise of the Finnish national liberation movement, and all of Finland joined the general strike in Russia. Political parties, especially the Social Democrats, took part in this movement and put forward their reform program. Nicholas II was forced to cancel decrees that limited Finnish autonomy. In 1906, a new democratic electoral law was adopted, giving women the right to vote (for the first time in Europe). After the suppression of the revolution in 1907, the tsar once again tried to consolidate the previous policy by introducing military rule, but it was swept away by the revolution of 1917.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In Finland, the woodworking and pulp and paper industries predominantly developed, which were oriented towards the Western European market. The leading branch of agriculture was livestock farming, the products of which were also mainly exported to Western Europe. Finland's trade with Russia was declining. During the First World War, due to the blockade and the almost complete cessation of external maritime relations, both the main export industries and the domestic market industries that relied on imported raw materials were curtailed.

Declaration of independence.

Declaration of independence. After the February Revolution in Russia in March 1917, the privileges of Finland, lost after the revolution of 1905, were restored. A new governor-general was appointed and a Sejm was convened. However, the law on the restoration of the autonomous rights of Finland, adopted by the Sejm on July 18, 1917, was rejected by the Provisional Government, the Sejm was dissolved, and its building was occupied by Russian troops. The “red” and “white” guards began to form. After the October Revolution and the overthrow of the Provisional Government on December 6, 1917, Finland declared its independence, which was recognized on December 18/31 by Lenin's Bolshevik government.

Radical social democrats, relying on the Red Guard units, carried out a coup d'etat in January 1918 and proclaimed Finland a socialist workers' republic. The Finnish government fled to the north, where Russian army general Baron Carl Gustav Mannerheim led the emerging White army. A civil war broke out between the whites and the reds, who were helped by the Russian troops still remaining in the country. Thousands of people became victims of the Red and White Terror. Kaiser Germany sent a division to Finland to help the Whites establish a pro-German regime. The Reds were unable to resist the well-armed Kaiser's troops, who soon captured Tampere and Helsinki. The last Red stronghold, Vyborg, fell in April 1918. A Sejm was convened to form a government, and Per Evind Svinhufvud was appointed acting head of state.

The creation of the republic and the interwar period.

The ruin of the country's economy and the blockade by the Entente made life in the country difficult. After some time, the parties were reborn under different names, and 80 moderate Social Democrats, also Old Finns and representatives of the progressive and agrarian parties, took part in the work of the Sejm, convened in April 1919. A new democratic constitution for the country was adopted. Kaarlo Juho Stolberg was elected president.

The Finnish “red” emigration in August 1918 in Moscow created the Communist Party of Finland, which declared its goal to be the “dictatorship of the proletariat.”

Controversial issues with Russia were settled thanks to a peace treaty concluded in Dorpat (Tartu) in October 1920. In the same year, Finland was admitted to the League of Nations. The conflict with Sweden over the Åland Islands was resolved through the mediation of the League of Nations in 1921: the archipelago went to Finland, but was demilitarized.

The language issue in the country was resolved by recognizing both Finnish and Swedish languages ​​as state languages. The land program developed by the Social Democrats began to be implemented. In October 1927, a law was passed on the purchase of land and the payment of compensation to landowners. Long-term loans were provided to peasants who had land plots, and cooperatives were organized. Finland joined the Scandinavian Cooperative Union. Modernization and structural changes in the economy led in the late 30s, despite the consequences of the global economic crisis, to stabilization and growth in living standards.

Finland also managed to overcome the threat to the democratic system from both the ultra-left (CPF) and fascist movements.

The Second World War.

Until the outbreak of World War II, the focus of Finland's foreign policy was on difficult relations with the USSR, where it was viewed as a potential enemy and feared about its rapprochement with Germany. The country's leadership still tended to focus on the Scandinavian countries. The situation in Finland became more complicated after the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact to include Finland, the Baltic countries and eastern Poland in the Soviet sphere of influence. Negotiations with the USSR on concluding new military and trade agreements were interrupted, and Stalin demanded the transfer of a number of lands in Karelia and a military base on the Hanko Peninsula.

On November 30, 1939, Soviet troops invaded Finland. A so-called puppet “government” was immediately created. "Finnish democratic republic"under the leadership of one of the leaders of the Comintern, Otto Kuusinen. This war, which went down in history as the “winter” war, was essentially unequal, although the Red Army, drained of blood by Stalin’s “purges,” fought ineffectively and suffered much greater losses than Finland. The famous Finnish defensive line of Mannerheim held back the advance of the Red Army for some time, but was broken through in January 1940. The Finns' hope for help from England and France was in vain, and on March 12, 1940, a peace treaty was signed in Moscow. Finland ceded to the USSR the Rybachy Peninsula in the north, part of Karelia with Vyborg, the northern Ladoga region, and the Hanko Peninsula was leased to Russia for a period of 30 years.

The threat from the east in the eyes of the Finns did not disappear, which was facilitated by the proclamation in April 1940 of the union Karelo-Finnish SSR within the USSR. Relations between the USSR and Finland continued to remain tense.

The German attack on the USSR in June 1941 prompted Finland to enter the war on the side of the Germans. The German government promised to return all territories lost under the Moscow Treaty. In December 1941, after repeated protests and notes, the British government declared war on Finland. The following year, the United States demanded that the Finnish government make peace. However, this step was held back by the hope of a German victory. In 1943, President Risto Ryti was succeeded by Mannerheim, who began to look for ways out of the war, in particular, through secret negotiations in Stockholm in the spring of 1944. The summer (1944) offensive of Soviet troops on the Karelian Isthmus led to the resumption of negotiations, and in September 1944 Finland signed an agreement about the truce with the USSR, according to which Finland gave up the Petsamo area, exchanged the leased Hanko Peninsula for the Porkkala-Udd area (returned to Finland in 1956).

The Finns pledged to facilitate the withdrawal of German military units from the country. Monitoring the implementation of the terms of the truce was carried out by the Allied Control Commission, headed by A.A. Zhdanov on the Soviet side. In February 1947, an agreement was signed between Finland and the USSR, confirming the terms of the truce and providing for the payment of reparations in the amount of $300 million.

Military insurance agency for short term established operational control over the work of industry in order to strictly comply with the deadlines for reparation deliveries to the USSR. In case of delay, Finland was subject to a fine of 5% of the value of goods (more than 200 items) for each month. At the request of the USSR, the following quotas were established for machinery, machine tools and finished products: a third were forest products, a third were transport, machine tools and machines, and a third were ships and cables. Equipment for pulp and paper enterprises, new ships, locomotives, trucks, and cranes were sent to the USSR.

New foreign policy course.

Finland began to be implemented at the final stage of the war, when Marshal Mannerheim was elected president of the republic and managed to lead the country out of the war. In 1946 he was replaced by Juho Cousteau Paasikivi (1870–1956), who sought to stabilize relations with the Soviet Union. In 1948, an agreement on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance was concluded with the USSR, which formed the basis for a policy that was called the Paasikivi Line.

The post-war reconstruction of the economy was successful. Despite the need to pay reparations, life in the country gradually improved. The government provided assistance (land and subsidies) to 450 thousand displaced people from areas transferred to the USSR.

Immediately after the war, the DSNF emerged on the political scene, dominated by communists who were planning a political revolution based on the Eastern European model. However, they did not receive the support of the USSR, whose leadership was not inclined to take risks. The DSNF became part of the government coalition, but suffered a severe defeat in 1948, mainly due to voter dissatisfaction with the communist takeover in Czechoslovakia. In the elections of 1951 and 1954, the DSNF again received significant support (partly as a reaction to the government's economic policies), but it failed to achieve its previous influence.

In the 1950s, Finland's international position strengthened. In 1952 the Olympic Games were held in Helsinki. In 1955 Finland became a member of the UN and the Nordic Council. At the beginning of 1956, the USSR returned Porkkala-Udd to Finland. The transformation of the Karelo-Finnish SSR into the Karelian Autonomous SSR within the RSFSR also brought peace to the minds of the Finns. Urho Kaleva Kekkonen, elected president of the republic in 1956, sought to increase Finland's freedom of action by pursuing an active policy of neutrality. This was manifested, in particular, in the Finnish initiative to hold a conference on security and cooperation in Europe in Helsinki in the summer of 1975. The course towards good neighborly relations between Finland and its eastern neighbor was called the “Paasikivi-Kekkonen line”.

Unemployment rates rose in the 1950s; The abolition of government subsidies for food products caused an increase in prices. In 1955, the government failed to support a wage agreement, which caused a general strike in 1956, which escalated into mass demonstrations and outbreaks of violence. The two parties in power - the SDPF and the Agrarian Union - were unable to agree on supporting prices for agricultural products. Since 1959, farmers have led a series of unstable minority governments.

The 1966 elections led to a sharp turn in Finnish politics. The SDPF and DSNF received an absolute majority of seats in parliament. Together with the center party PFC (formerly the Agrarian Union), they formed a strong coalition that introduced strict wage and price controls to slow inflation and balance the trade deficit. However, in 1971 the DSNF left the coalition and the government resigned.

In the early 1970s, Finland experienced an economic recovery thanks to trade agreements concluded in 1973 with the EEC and Comecon. However, in the mid-1970s, rising oil prices caused a decline in production and rising unemployment. In 1975–1977, a bloc of five parties led by Martti Miettunen (PFC) replaced the ten-year rule of the Social Democrats, led by Kalevi Sorsa. From 1979 to 1982, a coalition of four parties (center and left) was led by Mauno Koivisto. In 1982, President Urho Kekkonen resigned and Mauno Koivisto was elected in his place. Sorsa again became the head of the government. Soon representatives of the DSNF left the cabinet, and the remaining three parties, having received a majority of votes, again formed a government in 1983.

The unprecedented growth of the Finnish economy in the mid-to-late 1980s led to its reorientation towards Western countries. For the first time in the post-war period, non-socialist parties won a majority of seats in the 1987 elections, and Harri Holkeri of the conservative NCP formed a coalition of representatives of four parties, joined by the Social Democrats. Taxes on individuals and companies were reduced, and Finland opened its markets to foreign investment. Liberalization helped achieve near full employment and sparked a boom in construction.

In the spring of 1987 there was a significant change in government policy, when the Coalition Party and the Social Democrats formed a majority government that remained in power until 1991.

Finland at the end of the 20th century.

After the unification of Germany and the collapse of the USSR, the Finnish government began to pursue a policy of rapprochement with Western Europe, which in the past was prevented by agreements concluded with the USSR. In 1991, trade with the USSR decreased by 2/3, but production in Finland itself decreased by more than 6%. Industries that had guaranteed sales in the USSR were unable to strengthen their position in the Western economy, where production was declining.

After the parliamentary elections of 1991, the Social Democrats went into opposition, and the Coalition Party and the Center Party (formerly the Agrarian Party) assumed government responsibility.

Their government, led by Esko Aho, was in power until the spring of 1995. The radical changes that came in world politics in the late 1980s and early 1990s; The end of the division of Europe, the collapse of the communist system and the collapse of the Soviet Union affected Finland in that the spiritual atmosphere changed and the field for foreign policy maneuvers increased. In 1986 Finland became a permanent member of the EFTA and in 1989, finally, a member of the European Council. In September 1990, the government issued a statement arguing that the provisions of the Paris Peace Treaty (1947), concerning the size and material of the armed forces, limiting Finnish sovereignty, had lost their meaning. In 1991, demands began to be made to change the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, but this idea became irrelevant when the Soviet Union ceased to exist at the end of that year. Finland recognized Russia's position as the legal successor of the USSR and in January 1992 concluded a good neighbor agreement. The treaty confirmed the stability of borders between countries. Both of them began implementing joint projects to combat environmental pollution from radioactive waste. The agreement did not include any military clauses, and both sides confirmed that the treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance was no longer in force.

In March 1991, 72% of voters gave their votes to the PFC and other non-socialist parties, which were in a clear majority. 36-year-old Esko Aho became the country's Prime Minister.

At the same time, integration processes in Western Europe caused increasing activity in Finland. Since 1985, Finland has been a full member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and in 1992 applied for admission to the EEC. Became a member of the EU on January 1, 1995.

EFTA and the European Community, i.e. The Common Market signed an agreement on the European economic sphere in May 1992. This agreement guaranteed EFTA countries freer access to the EU internal market. In Finland, this agreement was seen as the "ultimate" goal, but after Sweden applied to join the EU in the summer of 1991 and after the collapse of the USSR at the end of the year, the need for Finland's full accession to the EU became increasingly apparent. Finland submitted an application to join the EU in March 1992 and the European Parliament approved this application in May 1994. In a referendum held in Finland on October 16, 1994, 57% of Finns supported joining the EU. In November of the same year, by a vote of 152 to 45, the Finnish parliament approved Finland's membership in the EU from the beginning of 1995. The capital Helsinki, the capital region and the largely developed south of the country voted in favor. The northern regions, provinces and small settlements spoke out “against”.

Since 1994, presidential elections began to be held by direct popular will. The candidate from the Social Democrats, State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Martti Ahtisaari, was elected president, receiving approximately 54% of the votes in the second round.

In the parliamentary elections held at the beginning of 1995, the Finnish Center Party suffered a crushing defeat, and the newly elected SDPF chairman Paavo Lipponen formed a government unique in the history of Finland based on the Social Democrats and the National Coalition Party. In addition, the government included the Greens, the Left Union and the Swedish People's Party. Lipponen's "rainbow government" operated for the entire four-year period. The central goals of the government were to integrate Finland into the structures of the European Union, get the economy working again and reduce high unemployment.

Finland in the 21st century.

In the 1999 elections, the non-socialist majority in parliament strengthened as the National Coalition Party and the Finnish Center, which remained in opposition, gained stronger support. The SDPF lost votes, but still retained its position as the largest group in parliament with its 51 seats. The election results had no impact on the basis of the government, and Paavo Lipponen created his second government on the same basis as the first. The center of Finland again went into opposition. In February 2000, Tarja Halonen (SDPF) became the first woman elected president of Finland. The former foreign minister won an almost equal final battle against Center Party Chairman Esko Aho (51.6% versus 48.4% of the vote). In 2001, Finland entered the Schengen area, and in 2002 adopted the euro as its national currency instead of the mark.

In the January 2006 elections, Tarja Halonen secured the support of 51.8% of the votes. Her only rival, former Finnish Finance Minister Sauli Niinisto, scored 48.2%.

In March 2007, the next parliamentary elections were held. A coalition government was formed from right-wing parties: the National Coalition and the Finnish Center Party. The Social Democratic Party also received a large number of votes, but did not enter the coalition and became the opposition.
On April 17, 2011, elections to Parliament took place. The following parties received the majority of votes: the National Coalition (20.4% of the votes), the Social Democratic Party (19.1%) and the True Finns Party (19.0% of the votes). The leading parties received fewer votes than before due to the fact that votes were given to the nationalist True Finns party, which ended up in third place.

History of Finland. Petrozavodsk, 1996
Political history of Finland. 1809–1995. M., 1998
Jussila O., Hentilä S., Nevakivi Y. Political history of Finland 1809–1995. M., 1998
XX century. Brief historical encyclopedia in 2 volumes. M., 2001



Finland is a state in northern Europe, bordering Russia, Norway and Sweden and having access to the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland in the Baltic Sea. The country's coastline is 4.5 thousand square meters. km., and the distance from the sea does not exceed 300 km at any point. In terms of area (338 thousand sq. km.), Finland surpasses such European countries as Great Britain and Italy, standing in 7th place among European countries. From north to south the country extends for 1160 km, from west to east - for 540 km. The economic and geographical position of Finland is affected by a number of features. This is one of the most northern states world, 1/4 of whose territory lies beyond the Arctic Circle, which complicates the economic development of a significant part of the country. The Baltic Sea gives it access to the World Ocean. An unfavorable factor in this case is the freezing of the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland for a long period. Located between Russia, Norway and Sweden, Finland is connected to them by various communications. The common border with Sweden is 586 km, with Norway - 727 km, with Russia - 1269 km.

Finland is a bourgeois republic. The head of state is the president, elected for a six-year term. The current president of the country is Martti Ahtisaari. Together with the unicameral parliament, it carries out legislative functions. The parliament consists of 200 deputies, elected for 4 years on the basis of direct and proportional voting. The highest executive power belongs to the State Council, which is formed by the president and the government. The current government is a coalition: the Social Democratic Party, the National Coalition Party, the Swedish People's Party, the bloc of “left” forces and the Green Party. The post of Prime Minister is occupied by Paavo Lipponen. Of the 18 ministers in the government, 6 are women.

Administratively, Finland is divided into 12 provinces - Läni, of which only one, Ahvenanma (Aland Islands), with a predominantly Swedish population, has its own parliament (Landsting).

Major historical events

The earliest traces of human presence on the territory of Finland go back to the early Mesolithic (8 - 9 thousand years BC). At that time, there were hunters’ camps on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Probably, in the Mesolithic, people penetrated into the territory of Finland from two sides: by sea through the Gulf of Finland and by land through the Karelian Isthmus.

The question of the origin of the ancient population of Finland is complex. The most recognized opinion is that the first settlers of the country were the Prosami, i.e., the ancestors of the current Sami, who came from the east.

The first written mentions of the Finns appeared in the works of the Roman historian Tacides (the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD) and the Greek scientist Ptolemy (2nd century).

In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. There were tribal alliances of Hame (Talastas) and Finns (Suomi) in the southwest and Korels in the southeast, which often fought with each other. These tribal alliances had trade links with Scandinavia, although they maintained traditional contacts with the northern Baltic states and Russia. During the Viking Age (9th-11th centuries), southern Finland was on the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. By this time, the Finnish tribes had developed social differentiation, which is confirmed by archaeological data. Under the pretext of spreading Christianity among the pagan Finns from the mid-11th century. The Swedes organized crusades, which led to their gradual conquest of many Finnish tribes, weakened by internal strife. However, when invading the Karelian lands, the Swedes encountered Novgorodians who came to protect the local population. The military conflict ended in 1323 with the signing of the Orekhov Peace Treaty, according to which the Novgorod-Swedish border was established from the Karelian Isthmus to Lake Saimaa and further to the northwest, to the eastern tip of the Gulf of Bothnia. The administrative borders of Finland and Sweden were drawn in 1374 along the Tornionjoki River. The accession of Gustav Vasa to the Swedish throne in 1523 stimulated the church reformation. With the support of the nobles and townspeople, this king carried out a decree to seize lands and other property from the Catholic Church.

Proclamation of Finland as a Grand Duchy in 1581. had little effect on the situation of the bulk of the Finnish people. In the 1590s, peasant unrest swept across the country. The largest of them, known as the Club War, originated in the western coastal regions and in 1596-97. extended to other areas of Finland. But due to the lack of a unified leadership and lack of weapons, the peasant movement was suppressed by the Swedish authorities and local nobility.

In the second half of the 16th century. Sweden's struggle with Russia for dominance in the Baltic intensified. After a serious defeat in 1595, the Swedes were forced by the Treaty of Tyavzin to cede to Russia the south-eastern coast of the Gulf of Finland, but in the north the border with Russia was not drawn from Lake Saimaa to the Gulf of Bothnia, but approximately in a meridional direction along the Manselka hill.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Finland was the poorest province of Sweden. Erupted at the beginning of the 17th century. North War between Sweden and Russia was conducted on the territory of Finland, which upset its economy and caused impoverishment of the population. The outcome of the war was favorable for Russia, which, according to the Treaty of Nystadt in 1721, received “for eternal possession” the Baltic lands from Riga to Vyborg, but Finland remained part of Sweden. Sweden's defeat in the campaign of 1741-1743. This led to the loss of the south-eastern regions of Finland, which passed to Russia.

In connection with the transfer of the capital of the Russian Empire to St. Petersburg, the strategic importance of Finland increased.

During the Russian-Swedish War of 1808-09. Russian troops occupied Finland and, according to the Treaty of Fredericksburg in 1809, it was annexed to Russia as a grand duchy. This significantly influenced the development of the country, where, after several centuries of continuous war, peace reigned, contributing to economic and cultural growth. As part of Russia, Finland received quite significant internal autonomy, having its own parliament - Sejm, government, judicial and executive authorities. Serfdom did not extend to the territory of the principality. To weaken Swedish influence, the capital of the principality was moved in 1812 from the city of Turku in the southwest to the city of Helsinki. In 1819, the Sejm and other administrative institutions moved to the new capital, and in 1828 the university. Swedish remained the official language, and since 1863, along with it, Finnish also became the official language.

After the collapse of the Russian Empire, Finland declared independence on December 6, 1917, which led to civil war. In 1919, the current Constitution was adopted, according to which Finland is a Western democracy with a market economy.

Finland maintains good neighborly relations with the northern European countries with which it has long-standing historical ties. In 1955, Finland joined the Nordic Council, a regional organization of Nordic countries cooperating socially, economically, scientifically and culturally. That same year, Finland became a member of the UN. And in 1995, Finland joined the European Union.

Nature

The nature of Finland amazes with its beauty and originality. Green forests, yellow squares of fields, mirror-like surface of blue lakes, fast rapids rivers, intricate outlines of sea shores - these are the touches of a portrait of Finnish nature. If you climb a hill covered with pine trees, through which rocks and stones grey, you most often see the following picture in front of you: a meadow, haystacks, a crop area cut through by reclamation ditches; right there is a residential building or a group of houses, then a chain of lakes with winding shores, and behind them are ridges of wooded hills.

Geological structure and relief

The natural features of Finland are determined by its location in northern latitudes, on the Baltic crystalline shield and the influence of the sea. The Finnish coastline is very dissected. Along the shore there are many small rocky clouds - skerries. The skerry coasts of Finland are exceptionally picturesque and have many convenient natural bays. Conditions for navigation there are favorable, since ships are protected from strong waves.

The surface of Finland is flat, which facilitated its economic development. A third of the entire territory is located below 100 meters above sea level and only 1/10 is above 300 meters.

At the base of the country's topography lies a rigid massif of the Baltic shield, the surface of which was subjected to prolonged irradiation. This ancient Precambrian basement is composed mainly of granites and gneisses. The far north-west of Finland is a mountainous region with the peak of Haltiotunturi reaching 1328 meters. This is part of the Scandinavian highlands, formed during the Caledonian orogeny.

The influence of individual elements of the foundation is manifested in the topography, the configuration of the coastline, and the river and lake network. In the Svecofinide and Karelite zones there are shale ridges and depressions, followed by an almost meriodian strike of ancient structures. The finely dissected relief of the southwestern and southeastern regions of the country is largely determined by the fracturing of bedrock - rapakivi granites. The flat lowlands in the lower reaches of the Kokemäenjoki and Oulujoki rivers are associated with outcrops of horizontally lying Jotnian sandstones.

The surface of Finland is dissected by a system of ancient tectonic fractures, which in many places is accompanied by a mosaic of horsts and grabens. It is in tectonic basins that numerous lakes are located. During the era of Alpine mountain building, movements resumed along ancient faults and, in addition, vast territories in the north and east of the country rose, which led to the formation of the Manselka hill, the height of which reaches 500-700 m above sea level. The basin near the lake probably sank at the same time. Inari.

And during the Quaternary period, the entire territory of Finland was repeatedly subjected to continental glaciations. The last ice sheet began to melt in the south of the country about 11 thousand years ago, and in about three millennia the remaining areas became free of ice. Consequently, the process of landscape formation began in geologically recent times. Since the territory of Finland was located in the center of an ancient glaciation region, the cover of glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits is discontinuous and its thickness is small. In the area of ​​the main ice divide, the ice was inactive, and there, under the moraine, pre-glacial weathering crusts up to 50 m thick were preserved. At some distance from this ice divide, the ice predominantly ground down and destroyed the crystalline bed. It is there that the network of lakes is especially dense and the cover of loose sediments is in many places broken through by outcrops of basement rocks. Such rocks are especially numerous in the southwest and southeast of Finland.

However, it is not only rocks that diversify the surface of this country; after the glacier melted, many moraine hills and ridges remained. Among the glacial formations, drumlins and terminal moraines stand out. Drumlins - moraine hills with a rocky core - are characteristic of eastern and northeastern Finland and the Åland Islands. Terminal moraines are found on islands near the city of Vasa and in southern Lapland (Pudasjärvi region).

The most famous are the regional glacial formations of Salpausselkä in southern Finland - two or three parallel ridges of surprisingly regular shape, the height of which is from 50 to 160 m above sea level. They are composed mainly of hydroglacial sands and pebbles, but in some places also moraine. Railways and roads are often laid along their flattened ridges.

Among the typical water-glacial formations, eskers are widespread - narrow ridges with steep slopes created by meltwater flows in icy gorges. The highest eskers, rising up to 60 m above the surrounding plains, are located in the southwest of the country. Usually eskers are oriented in the direction of glacier movement, but sometimes also across this direction. They are composed of pebbles and coarse sands, which are intensively mined; As a result, the area of ​​eskers is reduced. The relief of Finland is also characterized by kamas - hills composed of lacustrine-glacial sand and pebble sediments.

The most fertile areas of Finland are composed of sediments from post-glacial reservoirs - clays, loams and sandy loams. Such areas are especially common in the coastal zone in the south and partly in the west of the country; in the interior regions, fine-grained sediments form the bottoms of drained lakes.

The surface of Finland is gradually rising, which is associated not only with secular movements earth's crust, but also with the disappearance of glaciers. At the beginning of post-glacial times, the rise reached 10 m per century, and currently it ranges from 30 cm in the Helsinki region to 90 cm on the northern shore of the Gulf of Bothnia. The sea is gradually receding, and the land area is expanding. According to modern estimates, in this way the territory of Finland increases by 1000 square meters per century. km. This generous gift of nature does not always bring benefits, since it is necessary to move ship moorings and other port facilities closer to the sea and deepen the fairways.

Climate.

Despite its northern location, Finland experiences the warming influence of the Atlantic. Throughout the year, westerly winds with frequent cyclones prevail in the country. Average temperatures in all seasons are much higher than in the eastern regions at the same latitudes. In the south of Finland, winters are relatively mild, with frequent thaws, and summers are quite warm, while in the north the winters are snowier and longer, and the summers are cool. In summer, the temperature differences in the north and south are not very large. In the south of the country, the average temperature of the warmest month, July, is 17-18°, in the center 16°, and in the north 14-15°. In winter, the contrasts are more pronounced: from -4° on the Åland Islands to -14° in northern Lapland.

In the southern regions, the warm period is longer: the number of days with an average daily temperature of more than 10° ranges from 110 to 122. In the center of the country, this period lasts from 85 to 100 days, and in the north - from 5 to 80. The total amount of active temperatures is higher 5° in the south is 1300°, in the north it is only 600°. Snow cover in the south lasts four to five months, and in Lapland - more than seven. Accordingly, in the south the snow melts already at the beginning of April, and in the north - only in the second half of May.

The total amount of precipitation in the southern regions of Finland reaches 600-700 mm per year, and in the Arctic Circle - 400-450 mm. The country's west coast generally receives less rainfall than the inland lake regions. The wettest month is August, but in the southwest there is another maximum precipitation in early autumn, and in the north in early summer. The least precipitation falls in spring.

In Finland, forage grasses, vegetables and potatoes are grown even in the far north of the country, but yields are highly dependent on the length of the growing season and on frosts, which often occur in June and August. The northern and eastern regions are especially susceptible to frost. In a normal summer, there is enough moisture for all crops, since the low amount of precipitation in the North is compensated by less evaporation and large reserves of moisture in the soil. However, crop losses also occur due to lack of moisture, especially in spring and early summer in the western coastal regions. Excessive moisture also causes great damage.

Finland's position at high latitudes predetermines long transitions from day to night. During the summer solstice in the south of the country, the sun shines for 19 hours and a day, and at the 70th parallel it does not set for 73 days. Summer white nights are extremely attractive. But even at the end of December, the country’s light does not exceed 6 hours, and in Lapland, winter night reigns for 50 days, interrupted by twilight at midday; the pale light of the moon, the majestic aurora and the dazzling shine of snow replace daylight there.

Plant resources.

Finland is not only a country of thousands of lakes and islands, it is also famous for its forests and swamps. The endless green sea of ​​taiga forests covers lowlands and hills, lake shores and river valleys, surrounds farmsteads and villages, and approaches the suburbs. The forest landscape is so typical for this country that people say: “Finland without a forest is like a bear without hair.” In general, the forested area makes up about 70% of the entire country; In terms of the size of its forests, Finland ranks second in Foreign Europe after Sweden. However, approximately 1/3 of all forests are in damp, wetlands. Total timber reserves are estimated at 1.5 billion cubic meters. meters.

Spruce grew in indigenous coniferous forests, on moist slopes and along river valleys, and pine grew in dry places. In the southwest of Finland, broad-leaved - coniferous forests spread, where linden, oak, maple, elm, and ash were mixed with spruce and pine.

Under the influence of frequent forest fires and intensive human economic activity, the composition of the forest stand changed significantly: spruce was gradually replaced by pine and birch. Currently, more than half of the entire forested area is occupied by pine, about 1/3 by spruce and approximately 1/7 by birch. Alder grows in moist lowlands. In some places in the forests there are aspen, rowan, bird cherry, and willow.

Under the influence of economic activity, not only the composition of the forest stand has changed. The forests are cut through by a dense network of roads, and in some places, even among the dense thicket, you can find clearings occupied by meadows and arable land. Forests are the basis of the country's national economy. They are used and cut down everywhere.

The scale of deforestation turned out to be so large that Finnish foresters sounded the alarm about the theft of timber reserves. In recent years, increased attention has been paid to reforestation, however, planted forests do not have the pristine beauty and diversity of indigenous taiga landscapes.

At its northern border, the Finnish taiga is a sparse pine forest with a small admixture of spruce. To the north it gives way to open birch forest, which turns into mountain forest-tundra and tundra on the slopes of the Scandinavian Highlands. The vegetation cover of these elevated areas is very varied and depends on the duration of snow cover, the abundance of running water and the lime content of the soil. For example, in places exposed to the wind, carpets of crowberries are spread, and in places where there is snow cover for a long time, blueberries predominate. In autumn, the mountain slopes come to life, colored with bright clusters of ripe berries. In spring and summer, the mountain tundra is also decorated with many flowers; Among them, the snow-white bells of polar heather and the red flowers of mountain azalea stand out. The most tall plant- willow forms dense thickets that completely cover the wet slopes of the mountains, irrigated by streams of melt water.

Swamps and wetlands occupy huge areas in Finland - up to 1/3 of the country's surface. They are especially extensive in the zone between 64 and 67° N. w. There are raised bogs with an open surface and covered with stunted pine forests, lowland ones with a stand of spruce or birch, and also transitional ones. In the south and along the western coast complexes of raised bogs predominate. North of 63° N. w. Open sedge bogs are common. In the far north they give way to hilly peat bogs. In the Ozerny region, a special type of swamps has developed, stretching along the bottoms of the valleys.

Population

Finland has 5,119,000 inhabitants. For 93% of the population, the native language is Finnish, for 6.5% it is Swedish. Finns make up a compact majority of the population in almost the entire country. Only in the Åland Islands and in some coastal areas of Pohjanm and Usima are Swedes predominant. In some northern and northwestern areas live the oldest inhabitants of the country - the Sami, of whom there are more than 2 thousand. Lutherans predominate in religion, about 2% of believers belong to Orthodox Church. The number of atheists is growing more and more.

Migration.

The natural increase in years and towns is noticeably higher than in rural areas. The reason is the higher birth rate on population dynamics in different areas, which is influenced by migration, which is divided into internal and external. The urban population is growing rapidly and the rural population is correspondingly decreasing. In 1971-1981 The population increased only in the southern regions, which had a positive balance in internal migration. In most communities in Finland, a negative balance of population migration currently prevails. The greatest balance of migration has been observed in recent years in those areas of northern and eastern Finland where agriculture predominates in the sectoral structure of the economy. Migration from these areas was directed both to large centers in the south of the country (mainly to the metropolitan area) and to the industrial areas of Sweden. Demographic changes can be divided into three stages:

1. The first stage reflects the state of the agricultural community during subsistence farming. Then the settlement system grew and expanded primarily in connection with the development of new lands. The greatest relative population growth was observed on the periphery of the community and in individual villages, where there was still unoccupied land suitable for cultivation. But in the central parts of the community around the village (administrative center), settlement, having reached its maximum, slowed down.

2. The second stage reflects the situation of the 50s, the growth of settlement, in connection with the development of new lands, was still above average on the periphery of the community, but, in addition, growth began in the central densely populated parts, and the rate exceeded the rate of average growth. However, this process was not associated with agricultural production, but with urbanization.

3. The third stage reflects the situation in the 80s, the growth of settlement acquired a centripetal character. The population of the administrative center increased even more compared to the previous stage, both quantitatively and territorially, but on the periphery of the community the population began to decrease in the peripheral zone.

The noted stages of population dynamics within one community turn out to be valid for the whole of Finland. In accordance with the described model, at the present stage, population growth has a negative balance in the peripheral zone, where agricultural land is the last to be developed. In large, densely populated areas of the country, the increase is above average and was most pronounced in the suburbs.

Farm

Finland is a developed industrial-agrarian country with modern industry, intensive agriculture and forestry. The share of industry and construction in GDP exceeded 2/5, and agriculture, forestry and fisheries decreased to 0.1. Employment in the service sector has increased sharply.

Finland, later than other Northern European countries, embarked on the path of capitalist industrial development, which for a long time was restrained by a number of reasons: the comparative severity of natural conditions, weak population density of the territories, political dependence first on Sweden, then on Russia, and lack of national capital.

The development of capitalism in Finland and the industrialization of the country are largely connected with the main natural resource - forest. When in the second half of the last century the demand for wood in Western European markets began to grow rapidly, Finnish wood, following Norwegian and Swedish, found wide use as a building material and raw material for paper production. The Saimaa Canal, built in those years, gave forests from the central and eastern regions of the country access to the sea. Sawmills and timber harbors grew up on the shores of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Income from the timber trade was used to finance the construction of pulp mills and paper mills.

In this way, already at the beginning of the 20th century. The foundations of Finland's specialization in the international division of labor were formed as one of the main producers and exporters of timber and paper products. However, until the middle of the 20th century. Finland remained a country with a predominance of agriculture and forestry over industry, which, moreover, had a pronounced one-sided character: on the eve of the Second World War, wood and its products accounted for more than 4/5 of the value of Finnish exports.

From an agrarian-industrial country, Finland has turned into an industrial-agrarian country; in this regard, it has caught up with the neighboring Scandinavian countries. If on the eve of the Second World War the share of agriculture and forestry in the gross national product was more than 1/3, and the share of industry was about 1/3, then at the end of 1980 the share of industry increased to 1/2 and was three times greater than the share of agriculture and forestry.

A characteristic striking feature of the Finnish economy is a high degree of centralization and concentration of capital and production. Three dozen largest concerns, private, public and mixed, concentrate about half of the workforce in their enterprises, produce more than half of industrial products and provide up to 3/4 of Finland's exports. The ferrous metallurgy is dominated by the state-owned Raotarukki company, and the non-ferrous metallurgy by Outokumpu. Almost all shipyards belong to the Rauma-Repola, Vyartsilya and Valmet concerns. In the production of cranes, the monopoly position is occupied by the Kone company, and in the production of passenger cars - by SAAB-Valmet. The Nokia and Solora companies produce about half of the electronics industry's products. More than half of the pulp production is concentrated at the enterprises of the concerns “Enso-Gudzeit”, “Kemi”, “Kummene”, “Yuhtyunet Paperitekhtaat”. About 4/5 of the wholesale trade is in the hands of two companies - Turo and Kesko.

The “twenty families” of the big bourgeoisie own controlling stakes in the most powerful industrial companies and at the same time occupy key positions in the two main commercial banks - Kansallis Osake Pankki and Suomen Juhdüspankki. These two giants concentrated in their hands more than 4/5 of the total capital and credit of the country's commercial banks. The Ehrnroot family stands out, closely associated with the Cansallis Osake Pankki Bank and a number of the largest timber, engineering, shipping and other companies. The Ehrnroots and other powerful clans, called the “Finnish Rockefellers,” became the de facto masters of entire industries. They have a great influence not only on the economic, but also to a large extent on the political life of the country.

The public sector plays an important role in the Finnish economy. This is explained by the traditional state ownership of a large part of land, forest and mineral resources, the transfer into the hands of the state after the war of military factories and enterprises owned by German capital, significant state investments in energy, metallurgy and other sectors of heavy industry.

Enterprises under state control produce approximately 1/5 of the country's industrial output. The most significant share of the public sector is in the mining industry, metallurgy, electric power, oil refining, chemistry and mechanical engineering. The state owns 1/3 of the land and about 1/4 of the forest area of ​​the country.

Finland was later than other Nordic countries in opening its doors to foreign capital. The participation of foreign capital in the Finnish economy is still relatively small. The most significant position of Swedish capital is in mechanical engineering. American and Anglo-Dutch oil monopolies have large subsidiaries in Finland.

Industry

In terms of the number of people employed in industry and the volume of gross industrial output, Finland ranks second among the countries of northern Europe (after Sweden). The industry of Finland, like Sweden, is dominated by two groups of industries: one of them is associated with the processing and processing of wood, the other with smelting and metal processing. But if the metal industry has long prevailed in Sweden, then in Finland the forest industry has long dominated.

Fuel and energy industry.

Energy supply is one of Finland's most challenging economic problems. Before the Second World War, 3/4 of the country's energy needs were covered by its own resources. The basis of the fuel and energy balance was wood, which accounted for more than 3/5 of total energy consumption, hydropower accounted for 1/8, and 1/4 of energy consumption was covered by the import of mineral solid and liquid fuels, the country’s own resources of which are absent.

The rapid growth in energy demand, primarily from the very energy-intensive pulp and paper industry, and at the same time the restriction of firewood consumption due to the more intensive use of wood in the timber and paper industry, caused a sharp restructuring of the fuel and energy balance. Currently, only 1/5 of the energy consumed in the country is covered by its own resources. The rest of the fuel comes from abroad. Every year, 13-14 million tons of oil and petroleum products, about 4 million tons of coal and coke and about 1 billion cubic meters are imported. m of natural gas. The main supplier of solid and liquid fuels to Finland is Russia. Natural gas also comes from Russia via a gas pipeline laid across the Karelian Isthmus.

Oil refineries are located on the southern and southwestern coast of the country in Scheldvig, near Porvo, and in Nantali, near Turku.

The Finnish electricity industry has long relied primarily on hydropower resources. Large hydroelectric construction began after the Second World War on the rivers of the northern part of the country. Cascades of power plants were built in the Oulujoki and Kemijoki river basins. The total capacity of the 15 power plants built on these two hydropower-rich rivers reaches 1,300 MW. and exceeds half the capacity of all hydroelectric power plants in the country.

By the end of the 1960s, the most powerful and economically advantageous waterfalls had already been developed, and leadership in the Finnish electric power industry passed to thermal power plants, the importance of which is increasing from year to year. In 1977, thermal power plants accounted for about 2/3 of electricity production. Thermal power plants are located mainly on the southern and southwestern coast of the country near large cities, oil ports and oil refineries. The country's largest thermal power plant is Inkoo (with a capacity of 800 MW), located on the shore of the Gulf of Finland southwest of Helsinki, the second largest thermal power plant (with a capacity of 440 MW) is located next to the oil refinery in Nantali, near Turku. A power plant was built in the southeast of the country, the fuel for which is natural gas supplied from Russia.

A new stage in the development of the Finnish electric power industry began after the first nuclear power plant came into operation in 1977 near the city of Tivisa on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. The power plant was built with technical assistance from the USSR and runs on Russian uranium.

Only after the Second World War, largely as a result of economic ties with Russia, metallurgy, metalworking and mechanical engineering began to develop rapidly in Finland.

Timber industry.

The timber and paper industry has a rich raw material base - vast taiga forests. And annually, depending on the situation on the world market, Finnish loggers harvest from 32-45 million cubic meters. m. Wood, mainly wood and pine.

Finland is one of the world's largest producers of lumber, paper pulp, and plywood. Sawmills annually produce up to 8 million cubic meters. m. sawn and planed boards. It ranks third in lumber exports after Russia and Canada. The largest sawmill centers are located at the mouths of the main timber rafting rivers - Kymijoki, Kokemäenjoki, Olulujoki and Kemijoki. This port cities Kotka on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, Pore, Oulu, Kemi on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia. Large center sawmills also include Lanpenranta, located on south coast Lake Saimaa, at the beginning of the Saimaa Canal. Location of sawmills and other wood processing enterprises. On rivers and lakes it is mainly of a historical nature, since only one third of the consumed wood is now rafted, and about 2/3 of it is delivered to enterprises from the forest by road.

Nowadays, the metal industry has taken a leading position in terms of the number of employees, the volume of capital investments and the cost of products. However, the timber and paper industry continues to dominate Finnish exports and determine the country's important role in the international division of labor and its place in world trade.

Ferrous metallurgy.

Finland has a significant raw material base for ferrous metallurgy. Iron ore from the Otanmäki deposit, located south of Lake. Oulujärvi, although it requires enrichment, contains valuable alloying metals - titanium and vanadium; the ore of the polar deposits of Kärväsvara, near the city of Rovaniemi, and Kolari, near the border with Sweden, is distinguished by its high iron content. Quite large iron ore deposits have been discovered at the bottom of the coastal part of the Baltic Sea - Yuscape, near the Hanko Peninsula, and Nyhamn, near the Åland Islands. In general, iron ore reserves are estimated at 200-300 million tons.

Ferrous metallurgy enterprises smelt about 2 million tons of pig iron, 2.5 million tons of steel and produce 2 million tons of finished rolled steel. The main center of iron and steel industry is the city of Rahe on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia. Here, in the 60s and 70s, with the participation of the USSR, the largest metallurgical plant in all of Northern Europe, Rautarukki, was built. It produces 4/5 of all cast iron and 2/3 of steel produced in the country. The steel sheet produced at the plant is used in shipbuilding and is partially exported. The ore comes mainly from the Otanmäki and Kärväsvar mines, and is also imported from Sweden. One of the main suppliers of iron ore raw materials for the blast furnaces of the Rautarukki plant was the Kostomuksha mining and processing plant in Karelia, built with the participation of Finnish companies. Small, predominantly metallurgical plants operate in the south of the country - in Imatra, in the Turku region and on the Hanko Peninsula.

Non-ferrous metallurgy.

Non-ferrous metals are the main mineral wealth of the country. Copper reserves amount to about 1 million tons. Copper pyrite ore of the most famous Outokumpu deposit in the east of the Lake Plateau also contains zinc, cobalt, sulfur, iron, silver, and gold. Nickel is extracted simultaneously with copper from the ore of the Kotalahti deposit located in the same area. Zinc reserves are estimated at 2 million tons. Its main production, along with copper and lead, is carried out from the Vihanti polymetallic ore deposit, located south of Oulu. Finland occupies one of the leading places in Foreign Europe in the production of copper and zinc.

In the north of the country, near Kem, the development of one of the world's largest chromium deposits, containing up to 30 million tons of metal, has begun. In terms of chrome ore reserves, Finland ranks third in the world after South Africa and Zimbabwe, and in terms of production it ranks fourth, second only to these countries and Turkey. Chrome ore, after its processing and concentrate at the Tornio plant, is exported.

Non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises are located on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia or close to it. The ore mined in Outokumpu and enriched there is supplied in the form of concentrates to the plant in Harjavalta, where blister copper and nickel are smelted from it, which are then processed by the electrolytic method at the plant in Pori. At one of Europe's largest zinc smelters in Kokkola, electrolytic zinc and cobalt are produced from concentrates coming from Vihanti and other mines.

Mechanical engineering.

In the post-war years, mechanical engineering has transformed from an industry that worked only for the domestic market into an industry whose products rank second in value to Finnish exports after timber and paper production. The main machine-building enterprises are concentrated mainly in the southwest of the country. The largest cities in the country are Helsinki. Turku and Tampere are at the same time the most important engineering centers.

Mechanical engineering primarily focuses on shipbuilding and the manufacture of equipment for the woodworking and pulp and paper industries.

With the participation of the Swedish concerns Volvo and SAAB-Scania, an automotive industry has been created, annually producing up to 30 thousand cars and about 2 thousand trucks

cars and buses. The bulk of components and parts come from Sweden.

Chemical industry.

The great need for pulp and paper production and for chemicals, primarily chlorine and caustic soda, contributes to the development of the chemical industry. At the same time, waste from the timber and paper industry serves as a raw material base for forest chemicals and fertilizer production. The growth of oil refining contributes to the formation of petrochemical production, including the production of synthetic resins and plastics. The main centers of the chemical industry are Oulu, Harjavalta, Kokkola, Kusankoski.

Textile industry.

The textile industry is one of the oldest industrial sectors in the country, the development of which was associated with the capacious Russian market. Even in the middle of the last lawsuit, large flax and cotton production had developed in Tampere. Later, woolen mills arose in Helsinki and its surroundings. The textile industry is complemented by numerous sewing and knitting enterprises.

Porcelain tableware and art ceramics from the Arabia factory in Helsinki have become widely known in many industries around the world.

In the food industry, the most developed is the production of dairy products, controlled by the Valio cooperative. Part of the butter and cheese is exported.

Agriculture continues to play an important role in the country's economy, although the share of the economically active population employed in it (together with forestry) has decreased almost threefold over the past two decades. Agriculture fully meets the country's needs for dairy and meat products and mainly for food and feed grains. This industry in Finland is characterized by the predominance of small and medium-sized landownership, a pronounced specialization in dairy farming and a close connection with forestry.

Finland is a country of small and medium-sized farms. Farms with arable land up to 10 hectares in size account for more than 3/5 of the total number of farms and own more than 2/5 of all arable land. Farms with plots of 10-20 hectares, which are considered medium in Northern European conditions, account for more than 1/4 of the total number of farms and have more than 1/3 of arable land. Thus, small and medium-sized farms, making up 9/10 of all farms, have 3/4 of the arable land. There is a systematic ruin of small farmers, as a result of which the total number of farms is decreasing from year to year.

The vast majority of small and medium-sized farms support their existence by selling timber from their forest plots, the size of which is several times larger than the size of arable land. On average in the country, each farm has only 11 hectares of arable land and at the same time more than 50 hectares of productive forests. Revenue from sold timber provides on average more than a quarter of farmers' income, and in many small farms - up to half of all cash income. In large areas of Central and Northern Finland, forestry is the main source of livelihood for peasants, and agriculture is only a supplementary source of livelihood.

The uniqueness of the sectoral structure of agriculture, along with the predominance of livestock farming over agriculture that is characteristic of all Northern European countries, is that in Finland, as in Denmark, it is exclusively big role dairy production. Approximately 4/5 of all income in Finnish agriculture comes from livestock farming, and income from milk sales accounts for 3/5 of income from livestock farming.

Transport and foreign economic relations. The country's close to peninsular position, combined with the abundance of deep bays, contributes to the development of maritime transport. 4/5 of imports and about 9/10 of exports are transported by sea. Compared to neighboring Scandinavian countries, the merchant fleet is small - its tonnage is slightly more than 2 million tons. The weight of cargo delivered by sea, among which mineral fuel predominates, is twice the weight of cargo sent from Finnish ports, consisting mainly of timber products. Among the numerous ports on the coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, Helsinki, where the most import cargo arrives, and Kotka, from where the most export cargo departs, stand out for their cargo turnover. The port of Turku is distinguished by the intensive development of car ferry connections with Sweden. Finland's largest oil import port is located in Nantali, neighboring Turku.

Among the inland waterways developed in the south-eastern lake part of the country, the Saimaa Canal stands out, connecting the system of lakes of the same name with the Gulf of Finland and passing partly through the territory of Russia.

Within the country, goods are transported mainly by road and rail. The railway network, amounting to 6 thousand km, belongs to the state. It took shape back when Finland was part of Russia.

There are more than 1 million cars and 130 thousand trucks in the country. Along with the highways built between cities, a network of dirt roads maintained throughout the year is widely developed.

Foreign economic relations are very important for the economic life of the country. This is evidenced by the fact that Finland's share of world trade is twice its share of world industrial production. More than 1/4 of the gross national product is sold on the foreign market. At the same time, imports cover up to 1/3 of the country's needs for goods and services.

Before the Second World War, almost all of the country's foreign trade was carried out with capitalist countries, which viewed Finland as a supplier of timber raw materials and semi-finished products. The share of timber and paper products exceeded 4/5 of the total export value, with half accounting for timber. More than 2/3 of all exports went to the three main imperialist countries - Great Britain, Germany and the USA, from where more than half of Finnish imports also came.

In the post-war years foreign trade Finland has undergone major structural changes. In the commodity structure of exports, the role of metal industry products has increased and the share of timber and paper products has decreased. Chemical and light industry products occupy a significant place.

Changes in the commodity structure of Finnish exports are largely associated with the industrialization of the country, with the expansion and deepening of trade relations with socialist countries, and above all with the Soviet Union, which was Finland's largest trading partner: it accounted for up to 1/5 of Finnish exports and imports .

Internal differences and cities

A distinctive feature of the distribution of the population and economy of Finland is their concentration in the south of the country. Finnish geographers, based on the level of population and economic development of the territory, divide their country into two parts almost equal in area: the southern, which is called Developed Finland, and the northern, or Undeveloped Finland. The border between “south” and “north” is usually drawn from the city of Joensu in the east of the country in a northwesterly direction to the city of Oulu on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia. In the southern half of Finland, where the flat, low-lying landscape is combined with relatively mild climatic conditions, about 9/10 of the population lives, more than 9/10 of industrial and agricultural products are produced, and there is a dense network of roads and railways. In the northern part of the country with rather severe natural conditions It was only after the Second World War that the rich forest, hydroelectric and ore resources began to be exploited in earnest. During the same period, agricultural development of the territory accelerated. In general, however, the vast Northern Finland remains economically underdeveloped and sparsely populated. If in the south of the country two basically already established economic regions can be distinguished - the South-West and Priozerye, then the north as a region is still just being formed.

Bibliography

1. “Geography of Finland”, 1982

2. Popular scientific geographical and ethnographic publication “Countries and Peoples”, 1992.

3. Brief geographical reference book “Countries and Peoples”., 1992

4. Yearbook, 1990