Luxembourg country relief. Population of Luxembourg: description, composition, employment and numbers. Foreign trade of Luxembourg

The concept of “economic-geographical location” is based on the category of “relationships”. EGP is a set of spatial relations of socio-economic objects to other objects of this type. If we are talking about a country, then these are relations to elements located outside of it, which have one or another economic significance for it, regardless of whether they were created by nature (seas, mountains, etc.) or by human hands (canals, enterprises, etc.) . The main idea of any situation is to reveal territorial relations: in the EGP - to economically significant objects (transport routes, sales markets, etc.), in a geopolitical position - to politically significant objects (centers of international politics, military-political bases, and others).

The economic and geographical position of a country indicates the degree of favorable development of economic relations with other countries, which can stimulate them, or, conversely, limit, favor or hinder the country’s inclusion in international exchange, facilitate or complicate the formation of its specialization. We can talk about different levels of economic and geographical position:

· Macro position is the position of a country on the economic map of the world as a whole. The leading factor in assessing the macro situation is the location of the state in relation to the main world trade and transport arteries. Since the leading transport on the world market is sea transport, this is an opportunity for good access to the World Ocean.
· Meso-position is the EGL in relation to the country in relation to neighboring economic regions, as well as in relation to countries that are second-order neighbors. In this case, the leading factors are the geopolitical situation and transport capabilities.
· The micro-position of a country is the position of the country in relation to its immediate neighbors, i.e. countries that have a common border with this country. EGP in this case depends on many factors, but the main ones are:

b Natural features of the location of the border, i.e. whether or not there are serious natural barriers at the border.

b Geopolitical situation on the border. There may be a naturally convenient section of the border with good roads, but all this turns out to be unnecessary if the border passes between warring states;

ь Communication routes. A well-developed transport system at the border facilitates any contacts between countries and determines the cost of cargo delivery, which of course results in a favorable economic and geographical micro-position.

Let us characterize the economic and geographical position of the small countries of Western Europe.

Kingdom Belgium- a state in northwestern Europe. The total area of the country is 32,545 square meters. km. In the north it is washed by the North Sea, the length of the sea border is 66 km. On land it borders: in the north with the Netherlands, in the east - with Germany and Luxembourg, in the south - with France. The total length of the border is 1,385 km.

Table 2.1. The length of Belgium's borders with neighboring countries

Rivers and canals provide connections with the countries of Central and Western Europe, and access to the North Sea facilitates participation in international trade.

Kingdom Netherlands- a state in northwestern Europe. The total area is 41,548 km2 (land area - 33,930 km2). From the north and west, the Netherlands is washed by the waters of the North Sea. In the north, the Dutch border runs along the coastline of the five West Frisian North Sea islands (Vlieland, Terscheling, Texel, Schiermonnikoog and Amyland). The total length of the border is 1,027 km, the length of the coastline is 451 km. In the south it borders with Belgium, in the east with Germany. The length of borders with neighboring countries is presented in the table.

Table 2.2. Length of the Netherlands' borders with neighboring countries

Thanks to its location in the middle of Western Europe, the Netherlands has an advantageous starting position. The Dutch economy is oriented towards foreign countries. Trade and transport are important sectors of the economy. Thanks to the favorable location of the Netherlands, many industrial enterprises are based here. Many large international companies have distribution centers for Europe in the Netherlands. In addition, the Netherlands is often home to industries that depend on the transport of large quantities of raw materials by sea (eg petrochemical industry).

Luxembourg- a state in Western Europe with an area of 2,587 km. In the west and north it borders with Belgium, in the south - with France, in the east - with Germany (138 km). It has no access to the sea.

The length of borders with neighboring states is presented in the table.

Table 2.3. Length of Luxembourg's borders with neighboring countries

Luxembourg's geographical position allows it to establish favorable international relations with neighbors such as Belgium, Germany and France.

Switzerland- a state in Central Europe. The total area of the country is 41,288 km2 (land area - 39,770 km2). In the south and southeast it borders with Italy, with France in the west, southwest and northwest, in the north with Germany, in the east with Austria and Liechtenstein. The total length of the border is 1,852 km.

The length of borders with neighboring states is presented in the table.

Table 2.4. Length of Switzerland's borders with neighboring countries

Due to its geographical location and historical development, Switzerland has close integration ties with the European Union, which is its main trading partner. Surrounded on all sides by the economically leading EU member states, Switzerland is also an important transit country through which a significant proportion of intra-EU freight flows pass.

Austria - state in Central Europe. The total area of the country is 83,849 km2 (land area is 82,730 km2). It has no access to the sea. In the south it borders with Italy and Slovenia, in the south and west - with Switzerland, in the west - with Germany and Liechtenstein, in the north - with the Czech Republic, in the east - with Hungary, in the northeast - with Slovakia. The total length of the border is 2,496 km.

The length of borders with neighboring states is presented in the table.

Table 2.5. The length of Austria's borders with neighboring countries

Austria is located in the center of Europe, at the crossroads of trans-European routes from Scandinavian countries and Central European countries to Italy and other southern countries. State borders for the most part coincide with many natural boundaries - rivers and mountain ranges. Only with the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary the border runs along relatively flat terrain.

The economic and geographical position of the small countries of Western Europe is determined by two main features:

· coastal location (Belgium, the Netherlands), facilitating the development of intercontinental connections, the import of fuel and raw materials from developing countries;
· the neighboring position of the countries of the region in relation to each other, promoting the development of integration processes.

Small countries of Western Europe have a stable political and geographical position:

· they have no claims to world hegemony;
· are more trusted by the world community than large countries.

The economic-geographical and stable political-geographical position contributes to the development of the economy and territory.

The transport-geographical position is transit, it is a crossroads of navigable sea routes, and at the same time it is the intersection of major international river, railway, road, air and pipeline routes.

Countries, due to their small territory, do not have large natural resource potential, but due to the beneficial EGP, they have the opportunity to use raw material bases of global importance.

The neighboring position of countries is determined by deep integration and interethnic economic ties within the EU. .

Luxembourg- a state in Western Europe. It borders on Belgium to the north and west, Germany to the east and France to the south.

The name comes from the High German lucilinburch - "small town".

Official name: Grand Duchy of Luxembourg

Capital: Luxembourg

The area of the land: 2,586 thousand sq. km

Total Population: 480 thousand people

Administrative division: 3 districts, which, in turn, are divided into cantons, and those into communes.

Form of government: A constitutional monarchy.

Head of State: Grand Duke of Luxembourg.

Population composition: 30% are Luxembourgers, 36.9% are Portuguese, 13.5% are Italians, 11.2% are French, 8.9% are Belgians and 6.8% are Germans.

Official language: Luxembourgish (a dialect of German with elements of French), French and German.

Religion: 90% are Catholics, there are Protestants.

Internet domain: .lu, .eu

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +352

Country barcode: 540 - 549

Climate

In terms of climatic features, Luxembourg is similar to the Netherlands and Belgium. Summer is warm, the average temperature in July is 17° C. In winter, positive temperatures prevail, but in the foothills of the Ardennes there are sometimes frosts - down to –15° C. During the year in the city of Luxembourg, an average of 760 mm of precipitation falls, partly in the form of snow. In the north of the country, the average annual precipitation increases to 850–900 mm, and snowfalls occur more often. In the valleys of the Moselle and the lower reaches of the Sur, hail often falls.

Geography

The country is located in Western Europe, between 6° 10" east longitude and 49° 45" north latitude. It borders on the east with Germany (138 km), on the south with France (73 km) and on the west with Belgium (148 km). In the east the country is limited by the Moselle River. The relief is mainly a hilly, elevated plain, in the north of which the spurs of the Ardennes rise (the highest point is Burgplatz, 559 m). The total area of the country is about 2.6 thousand square meters. km. The capital is also called Luxembourg, as is the adjacent province of Belgium, which occupies a larger area than the Duchy of Luxembourg.

The territory of Luxembourg can be divided into 2 parts - northern (Esling) with the spurs of the Ardennes and southern (Gutland - “good land”). The southern half of Luxembourg is an extension of the Lorraine plateau and is characterized by undulating cuesta terrain. Here the relief is represented by a system of ridges and ledges, gradually descending to the east. Cultural landscapes predominate. In the north of the country, in Essling, occupied by the foothills of the Ardennes, a highly dissected terrain with heights of up to 400–500 m is developed.

The highest point is Mount Burgplatz (559 m). The soils in the north are composed of quartz and shale rocks, which are infertile. In the south there are fertile loamy soils.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

More than 1/3 of Luxembourg's territory is occupied by oak and beech forests. They are concentrated in Essling and northern Gutland. Larch and spruce appear in the upper slopes of the Ardennes. In some places there are heathers and peat bogs. In Luxembourg, such heat-loving plants as walnut, apricot, holly, boxwood, dogwood, and barberry are cultivated in gardens and parks.

Animal world

The fauna is greatly depleted. You can see hares in the arable fields, and individual roe deer, chamois and wild boars in the forest thickets. Many squirrels live here. Birds include wood pigeons, jays and buzzards, as well as pheasants. A sparrowhawk became a rare visitor. The dense forest thickets are home to hazel grouse and capercaillie. There are trout in the rivers and streams of Essling.

Attractions

The first mention of Luxembourg dates back to 963, at that time it was known as "Luklinburhoek", which in the local dialect meant "small castle". A person who comes to this tiny country for the first time is amazed by the variety of landscapes that fit into such a small territory, as well as the originality of the traditions and way of life of the local residents.

From the strongest fortress in Europe, Luxembourg, built by the French Marshal Vauban and destroyed in 1868, many buildings have still survived - individual walls with loopholes, some of the fortress gates (for example, the unique gate "Three Doves", the gate of Treves and etc.), long passages and casemates in the depths of the rock, the Three Acorns towers along the edges of the rocky area above the cliff and the citadel of the Holy Spirit. Near the square, on the site of ancient fortifications, there is a park, which on the other side ends in a cliff, from which a wonderful view of the ancient suburb of Bock and the ruins of the castle opens.

Of interest are the garden of the Spanish governor Ernst Mansfeld (late 16th century), the labyrinth of ancient houses of the National Museum of History and Art, the building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1751), Notre Dame Cathedral (Notre Dame, 1613-1621), famous for its majestic sculptures and the tomb of the Grand Dukes, as well as the tomb of the King of Bohemia and Count of Luxembourg John the Blind. It is worth visiting the Refugium of the Trier Abbey of St. Maximin (1751), the former Jesuit college (1603-1735, now the National Library is located here), the Town Hall building (1830-1838), the Church of Saint-Michel (built in the 10th century) . and rebuilt in the 16th century), the chapel of St. Quirin (XIV century), the Church of St. John on the Rock (XVII century), the Bastion of the Holy Spirit, the Casino (1882) and many other historical and cultural monuments.

One of the places of pilgrimage for tourists is the former underground defensive systems of the Bock and La Petrus casemates, in which 35 thousand people took refuge during the Second World War. Above the Bokk casemates on the rock lie the ruins of the first count's fortress. During the tourist season, the main bridges and buildings, as well as all the ancient fortifications, are skillfully illuminated.

The Royal Boulevard and the Ring of Parks, densely built up with dozens of bank buildings, offices and shopping centers, surround the ancient city center in a semi-ring. Two pedestrian streets depart from Hamilius Square - Post Street and Monterey Avenue. Nearby lies Place des Armes - once a meeting place for young Luxembourgers (now there is a pedestrian zone and dozens of restaurants and bistros), which has been “replaced” in this role by Place Hamilius.

Also of interest here are the Waldbilig chapel, the small passage on Wilhelm II Square, the City Hall building, the National Monument of Solidarity with the Eternal Flame, etc. You can explore the old quarters of Gron (Stadgro), Dinselpurt, Klosen, Pfafendal and others, or visit the ancient Benedictine monastery of Münster with its church St. John the Baptist, the building of the Palace of European Justice in the Kirchberg district, the Central Archive of the Grand Duchy in the old armory building, as well as the Fish Market Square and explore many old houses of the local bourgeoisie, most of which are made in a very original architectural style.

Banks and currency

Since January 2002, the official currency of Luxembourg is the euro. 1 euro is equal to 100 cents. In circulation are banknotes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 euros, as well as coins of 1 and 2 euros and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cents.

Banks are open on weekdays from 9:00 to 16:00 with a lunch break from 12:00 to 14:00. On weekends, banks are open until 12:00. Most exchange offices are open throughout the week.

You can exchange foreign currency at banks and currency exchange offices, which are located at banks, at railway stations, in hotels and at the airport. Banks offer better exchange rates.

Credit cards and traveler's checks are accepted for payment everywhere. Some stores only accept credit cards for purchases over 100 euros.

Useful information for tourists

Luxembourgers give the impression of being reserved and overly reserved (most locals live in small families and prefer their own houses), although this is not entirely true. When communicating with visitors, the residents of the country are extremely polite and correct; they also easily come to the aid of tourists in any difficult situation.

Luxembourg has virtually no nightlife tradition and the entertainment industry is aimed mainly at foreigners.

In spring, the country widely celebrates Shepherds' Day with a colorful procession and carnival. Luxembourg is famous for its Mosel wines. Flower exhibitions are held annually.

You can move freely throughout the country, but you should carefully monitor the observance of the rights of private property - crossing the latter, and even more so, settling on private territory for the night, fishing or collecting plants is possible only with the permission of the owner or tenant. Otherwise, the police have the right to take any measures, including detention and deportation from the country.

Tips in most establishments are 10%; in taxis the amount is rounded up.

Geographical position

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, a state in Western Europe. Square 2586 thousand sq. km. Bordered on the west and north With Belgium, in the east With Germany And on South With France. Capital city also has a name Luxembourg, as well as the adjacent province of Belgium, which occupies a larger area than the Grand Duchy. WITH 1921 (with the exception of the period of German occupation in 1940-1945 ) Luxembourg is in an economic union with Belgium. The country is part of an economic union Benelux And European Union (EU).

In terms of climatic features, Luxembourg is similar to the Netherlands and Belgium. Summer is warm, average July temperature 17 C.in winter prevail positive temperatures, But in the foothills of the Ardennes sometimes there are frosts before -15 C. During the year, the average rainfall in Luxembourg City is 760 mm precipitation, partly in the form of snow. In the north of the country average annual precipitation increases to 850-900 mm, snowfalls occur more often. In the valleys of the Moselle and lower reaches of the Sur often falls out hail.

Visas, entry rules, customs rules

Required documents To obtain a visa to Luxembourg:

Passport signed by the owner;
- 3 photographs;
- personal data;
- a certificate from the place of employment about income, on company letterhead, indicating the position held and salary;
- certificate of export of currency, at the rate of at least 50 USD per day per person;
- for children under 18 years of age traveling with one parent or independently, notarized permission from parents in Russian; if children are traveling in a group - a power of attorney
from both parents to the group leader;
- for schoolchildren - a certificate from the place of study stating that the educational institution does not object to the student traveling abroad during school hours; for students - a copy of the student ID;
- for pensioners - a copy of the pension certificate.

Document submission deadline no less than 15 days before departure.

The country is included in Schengen zone. For entry must have international passport and visa, confirmed hotel reservation and medical insurance.

Ordinary deadline for registration documents at the embassy - 10-14 days.

Required documents:

International passport;
- 3 questionnaires (in French, English or German) with photos;
- hotel reservation;
- medical insurance.

Consular fee applies: to stay in the country for 1-30 days- near US$23, up to 3 months - US$30, over 3 months- near US$38.

Valid term of a visa indicated in it itself. There are no discounts for children who have their own passport. Children included in their parents' passports enter the country without paying a consular fee. A child traveling with an adult Necessarily must be mentioned in the invitation.

Population, political status

Celts, Franks and Germanic tribes who migrated through the area before and after the Roman invasion, are the ancestors of modern residents of Luxembourg. The country has own language -Luxembourgish, which is based on a dialect of the German language with numerous borrowings from the French language. French And German are also the official languages of the country. In addition, many residents say in English.

Luxembourg - a constitutional monarchy where power passes by inheritance. Head of State - Grand Duke. Operates under Duke advisory body - State Council, whose members hold office until the end of their lives. Executive branch carried out Duke And Government headed by prime minister. Legislature is in the hands Chamber of Deputies, which elected by direct vote for a period of 5 years. The Duke may make changes and amendments into laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies.

What to see

Luxembourg City - famous for its ancient architectural monuments.

Upper (old) city within the boundaries of the old fortress walls limited from the south and westthe valleys of Petrus and Alzette, A from the north and east - city park.

The starting point of the city sightseeing tour is located in the center Constitution Square(Place de la Constitution). In common parlance pl. Constitutions are called " Gelle Fra" (Gelle Fra), which means " Golden lady".

What gives the city a special charm is numerous bridges over the Moselle river. A beautiful view of the park complex in the Petrus Valley, which can be reached by a wide staircase, opens from the viaducts: Adolf Bridge(Font Adolphe, 1900 g.) and old viaduct(1859 ). Viaducts take you to the busy Station Quarter with its noisy administrative buildings passing by steel concern buildings "ARBED", State Savings Bank, and station with an impressive tower.

The main attractions of the old part of the city("Upper City") - rock chapel of Saint Cyren, gothic Saint Michel Cathedral,Grand Ducal Palace, cathedral Notre Dame Cathedral.

IN Cathedral of Our Lady- spacious temple XVII century - from the side of a narrow street there is an early Baroque entrance portal. Among the most interesting details of the Baroque interior decoration relate rich choirs, rich in Moorish style elements. IN 30's gg. XX V. the southern part of the church was rebuilt. It contains a particularly revered image of the Mother of God." Comforter of the Sorrowful",patroness of the city. To this image in the third and fourth week after Easter is being organized mass pilgrimage. At the entrance to the crypt-tomb of the Grand Dukes there are two bronze lions.

Next to the cathedral, in the building of the former Jesuit College (Jesuitenkolleg), a Renaissance palace with three wings, houses National Library. And on the opposite side rises an old Refugium of the Trier Abbey of St. Maximina. This is a powerful building made of natural stone, erected in 1751 g., serving today seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. And behind him lies a cozy Place Clairefontaine, decorated statue of Grand Duchess Charlotte. From here you have a picturesque view of the cathedral.

Shopping street Rue de Fosse leads to Place Guillaume (Place Guillaume II), nicknamed " Knudeler". This word means the knotted belt of the Franciscan monks, whose abbey was located on this site until XIX V. In the center of the square rises equestrian statue of William II, which, thanks to personal union, he was both King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In the southern part of the square there is city hall- town hall in the style of classicism ( 1830 ). Small, decorated with a statue of a fox, fountain- a reminder of the Luxembourg poet Michel Rodanger, who transferred the collisions of Goethe's satirical poem "Reinecke-Fox" to Luxembourg soil.

A special passage leads from here to Parade Square (Place d'Amies). This square, surrounded by a ring of street cafes and restaurants, is a venue for all kinds of cultural events and a center of social life. On summer evenings, the pavilion in the center of the square often hosts concerts. The relief on the façade of the Cercle depicts the handing over of the Liberty Charter by Countess Ermesinda to the townspeople V 1244 G.

Palace of the Grand Dukes (Palais Grand Ducal), built in 1572 g., in cultural and historical terms, is perhaps the most interesting architectural complex of the country. In the Renaissance style 1563 The left wing of the palace, the former town hall, was built. The recently restored facade is especially beautiful, with Moorish-Spanish arabesques on which create a very exotic impression.

Rue de la Boucherie ends with Marche aux Poissons, former Fish market and the historical core of the city. In more than 100 halls located nearby National Museum of History and Art (Musee National d'Histoire et d'Art) exhibits on the history and culture of the country are presented.

Church of Saint Michel(St Michel). At this place still in 987 G. Count Siegfried ordered to build palace chapel. After repeated destruction, restoration work and reconstruction, only the Renaissance portal remained. The interior contains both Baroque elements and a late Gothic organ.

Le Boc (Le Bock; "Goat"). From this spur of the rock with the ruins of the first count's fortress opens picturesque view of the Alzette valley with the lower suburbs of Grund and Pfaffenthal. The remains of an ancient fortress with the ruins of bastions make an impressive impression.

Casemates Bock(Casemate du Bock) were arranged in XVIII V. under the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa. During a romantic journey through the labyrinth of passages in the rock, which takes about half an hour, you can get acquainted with the life of the defenders of the rock fortress(from March to October from 10.00 to 17.00).

Chemin de la Corniche (Chemin de la Comiche) From this mountain path another one opens valley panorama and located opposite Plateau du Rham.

Lower suburbs of Grund (Grimd) And Pfaffenthal (Pfaffental). The ancient houses sandwiched in a narrow valley form a well-preserved architectural ensemble XIV V. The businesslike nature of the Upper Town is softened here by a rural idyll. And in the evenings everything is completely transformed.

A fascinating place for a walk - City Park, lying in the northwest of the Upper City. Villa Vauban (Villa Vauban), luxurious estate XIX c., stands on the site of Fort Vauban. Today it is located here Pescator Museum (Musee J.-P. Pescatore), named after the banker who gave the city his rich collection of Flemish and Dutch paintings XVII-XIX centuries

Luxembourg, who was on the path of many conquerors, repeatedly fell under the rule of German, French, Austrian, Dutch and Spanish rulers. Despite numerous changes in political status, He retained his face and gained independence.

What is known in history as Luxembourg includes the territory extending beyond the modern boundaries of the Grand Duchy - the province of the same name in Belgium and small areas of neighboring countries. Self the word Luxembourg in translation means small castle or fortress; this was the name for the fortifications of the capital city, carved out of stone, which in Europe was known as North Gibraltar. Situated on steep cliffs rising above the Alzette River, this fortress was almost impregnable and existed until 1867 .

Romans, Maybe, the first to use this strategically important place and fortify it, when they ruled in the region of Belgica in Gaul. After the fall of the Roman Empire Luxembourg was conquered by the Franks V 5 V. and later became part of Charlemagne's vast empire. It is known that one of the descendants of Charles, Siegfried I, was the ruler of this area in 963-987 , and in 11 V. Conrad, who assumed the title of Count of Luxembourg, became the founder of the dynasty, which ruled until 14 V.

IN 17 V. Luxembourg repeatedly became involved in the wars between Spain and the increasingly powerful France. According to the Treaty of the Pyrenees 1659 G. Louis XIV conquered the southwestern edge of the duchy with the cities of Thionville and Montmédy. During another military campaign in 1684 French people captured the fortress of Luxembourg and stayed there 13 years, so far according to the conditions Peace of Ryswick Louis is not forced to return it to Spain along with the lands he captured in Belgium. After long wars, Belgium and Luxembourg 1713 came under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs and a relatively peaceful period ensued.

He was interrupted French Revolution. Republican troops entered Luxembourg in 1795 , and the area remained under French rule during the Napoleonic Wars. At the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 gg. European powers for the first time allocated Luxembourg as a Grand Duchy And handed it over to the King of the Netherlands William I in exchange for the former possessions, which were annexed to the Duchy of Hesse. Luxembourg, however, was simultaneously included in the confederation of independent states - German Confederation, and the Prussian troops were allowed to maintain their garrison in the capital's fortress.

The next change occurred in 1830 , When Belgium rebelled, also belonged to William I. With the exception of the capital, which was held by the Prussian garrison, the entire Luxembourg joined the rebels. Trying to overcome the division in the region, the great powers 1831 G. proposed dividing Luxembourg: his the western part with a French-speaking population became a province of independent Belgium. This decision was finally approved London Treaty 1839 g., and William remained the ruler of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, which had greatly decreased in size. The Great Powers made it clear that they regarded the duchy as a state independent of the Netherlands, bound only by personal union with the ruler of that country. IN 1842 Luxembourg joined Customs Union German states, founded in 1834 G. With the collapse of the German Confederation V 1866 the prolonged stay of the Prussian garrison in the city of Luxembourg began to cause discontent in France. King of the Netherlands William IIIoffered to sell his rights to the Grand Duchy Napoleon III, but at this time an acute conflict broke out between France and Prussia. Second London Conference got ready in May 1867, And Treaty of London, signed in September of the same year, resolved the existing contradictions. The Prussian garrison was withdrawn from the city of Luxembourg, the fortress was liquidated. The independence and neutrality of Luxembourg were proclaimed. The throne in the Grand Duchy remained a privilege Nassau dynasty.

Personal union with the Netherlands was interrupted at 1890 , when William III died and his daughter Wilhelmina inherited the Dutch throne. The Grand Duchy passed to another branch of the House of Nassau, and began to rule Grand Duke Adolf. After Adolf's death in 1905 his son took the throne William, ruled until 1912 d. Then began the reign of his daughter Grand Duchess Maria Adelaide.

August 2, 1914 Luxembourg was captured by Germany. At the same time, German troops entered Belgium. The German Foreign Minister promised Luxembourg to pay reparations for the violation of its neutrality, and the occupation of the country continued until the end of the First World War. With the restoration of independence in 1918 A number of changes have taken place in Luxembourg. January 9, 1919 G. Maria Adelaide abdicated the throne in favor of his sister Charlotte. The latter received an overwhelming majority of votes in a referendum held in 1919 to decide whether Luxembourg wished to remain a Grand Duchy with the ruling house of Nassau. In the same time constitutional reforms began in the spirit of democratization.

At the plebiscite 1919 population of Luxembourg expressed a desire to preserve the country's independence, but at the same time voted for economic union with France. However, France, in order to improve relations with Belgium rejected this offer and thereby prompted Luxembourg to conclude an agreement with Belgium. As a result, in 1921 was established, operating for half a century railway, customs and monetary union with Belgium.

Luxembourg's neutrality was violated for the second time by Germany when the Wehrmacht troops 10 May 1940 entered the country. The Grand Duchess and members of her government fled to France, and after the latter’s surrender organized the government of Luxembourg in exile, located in London and Montreal. The German occupation was followed by the annexation of Luxembourg into Hitler's Reich in August 1942. In reply the population of the country declared a general strike, to which the Germans responded mass repressions. Near 30 thousand inhabitants, or more 10% The entire population, including most young men, were arrested and expelled from the country.

In September 1944 Allied troops liberated Luxembourg, and 23 Septemberthe government in exile returned to its homeland. The northern regions of Luxembourg were recaptured by German troops during the Ardennes offensive and were finally liberated only in January 1945.

Luxembourg took part in many post-war international agreements. He participated in the establishment of the UN,Benelux(which also included Belgium And Netherlands), NATO And EU. Luxembourg's role in the Council of Europe is also significant. Luxembourg signed in June 1990 G. The Schengen Agreement, which abolished border controls in the Benelux countries, France and Germany. In February 1992 was signed by the country Treaty of Maastricht. Two representatives of Luxembourg - Gaston Thorne (1981-1984 ) And Jacques Santerre(With 1995 ) - served as presidents of EU commissions.

In general elections in June 1999 ruling HSNP And LSRP failed: they received 19 and 13 seats out of 60, respectively, losing 2 and 4 seats. Against, democrats strengthened their positions, taking 15 seats in parliament (3 more than in 1994 ). 7 places received association of pensioners, 5 - Greens, 1 - left block. After the elections, a new government was formed from representatives of the KSNP and the Democratic Party, led by Jean-Claude Juncker.

International trade

Foreign trade of Luxembourg related to Belgium's foreign trade, And National Bank of Belgiumcarries out international operations in Luxembourg. The state is heavily dependent on foreign trade. Most industrial products are exported, and 1/3 it is made up metals And finished goods. Luxembourg in its entirety imports energy for industry- coal And oil;are also imported cars, fabrics,cotton, food And Agreecultural machines. Agreecultural equipment. Until the middle 1970s years, the trade balance was usually positive, and export earnings exceeded import costs, but the reduction in steel production significantly changed the balance. IN 1995 the value of exports was $7.6 billion, and the value of imports was $9.7 billion. Trade balance is reduced due to the large income of the financial sector. Main foreign trade partners of Luxembourg - EU countries.

The shops

Shops are open Monday through Friday With 9:00 before 18:00 , lunch break With 12:00 before 14:00 , on Saturday- With 9:00 before 12:00 . Large supermarkets are open daily With 9:00 before 22:00 .

Demography

Population of Luxembourg amounted to 300 thousand. man in 1930 G., 291 thousand. V 1947 g. and 385 thousand according to the census 1991 G. Populationin July 2003 valued at 454.2 thousand. Human. During the Second World War there was a sharp decline in the population, especially the male population, but this loss was compensated by population growth after 1950 G. Almost the entire increase - result of immigration. IN 1996 there were approx. 127 thousand Human foreign origin(mostly Portuguese And Italians) - 33% the entire population of the country. The birth rate has decreased from 31 per 1000 people at the beginning of the 20th century. before 11,92 V 2003 G., and the mortality rate is 8,78 per 1000 people. Infant mortality rate amounts to 4,65 per 1000 newborns. Life expectancy in Luxembourg in men - 74,38 , A among women - 81,15 .

Most of the population concentrates in the southern part of the country. In the capital city of Luxembourg resided 77.4 thousand. Human ( 1996 ). Other cities with a population of over 15 thousand Human - Esch-sur-Alzette (24.6 thousand.), Differdange (16.4 thousand.) And Dudelange (16 thousand.). Important tourist centers - Echternach And Mondorf-les-Bains.

Industry

At the southern border of Luxembourg there are rich iron ore deposits, belonging to the vast Lorraine basin. IN 1970 about 5.7 million. tons of ore, but production declined rapidly and was finally discontinued at first 1997 . At the same time The last blast furnace was extinguished. Significant steel production worked in recent years based on imported ore, imported mainly from France. The share of steel in 1952 had to third of GDP, and in 1994 - Total 6% . During the period 1974-1990 steel production decreased With 6.4 million. tons up to 3.5 million. tons, and iron production fell by half. Basic steel concern ARBED, founded in 1911 , was the country's largest industrial enterprise. Currently steel production has been reoriented to the use of scrap metal as raw materials and smelting in electric furnaces.

Final qualifying work

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the European Union

Introduction

legal european union duchy

The official name of Luxembourg is the "Grand Duchy of Luxembourg". The state is the only existing sovereign Grand Duchy in the world.

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is located in the heart of Europe between Belgium, Germany and France. Despite its small geographical size, Luxembourg has proven itself to be an attractive and competitive business center. Luxembourg is a co-founder of the European Union, a member of all major international institutions, and a co-founder of NATO, the UN and the OECD. Luxembourg is a world leader in fund and asset management and is widely regarded as an ideal location for a variety of businesses and finance-related activities.

Luxembourg is a unitary state. The country is divided into three districts, the districts in turn - into cantons. There are no representative bodies in these administrative units, and the functions of local administration are performed by senior officials appointed by the government: in districts - commissioners, in cantons - burgomasters.

Luxembourg has excellent advantages in terms of taxation, low inflation, high GDP, and also has the lowest VAT rate in Europe, and a reliable legislative and regulatory framework. A country with a high quality of life, it has become the largest European investment fund center and the second largest global center after the United States.

Modern Luxembourg is the smallest of the 15 member states of the European Union (EU). This is a major European crossroads, one of the capitals of the EU, where the EU Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors, a number of directorates of the European Commission, the Secretariat of the European Parliament, and the European Investment Bank are located. Luxembourg is the third foreign investor in Russia, and the total volume of investments in 2005 is 16,101 million dollars.

In terms of indicators of economic development, level and quality of life, number of cars per capita, social guarantees, the country has for many years occupied a leading position in Western Europe, leading in two indicators - the share of GDP per capita and purchasing power. Luxembourg's macroeconomic indicators for 2005 indicate a kind of model of economic development for a European state with record economic growth rates for the country. Today, Luxembourg is one of the most active participants in economic integration, not only in Europe, but throughout the world.
Luxembourg is a tiny state, its area is 2.6 thousand square meters. km. The consequence, it would seem, is a lack of resources: natural, labor. However, Luxembourg is one of the richest countries in Europe.
The current Constitution of Luxembourg was adopted on October 17, 1868. Since then, important changes have been made to it. Thus, in 1919 it was established that sovereign power comes from the people, all secret treaties were annulled, and universal suffrage based on proportional representation was introduced. In 1948, the list of democratic rights and freedoms of Luxembourg citizens was significantly expanded.

In particular, new socio-economic freedoms were proclaimed. The Declaration on the Revision of the Constitution of April 29, 1954 gave the government the right, if desired, to renounce part of national sovereignty and transfer it to so-called supranational bodies. “The implementation of the prerogatives,” it was written in the law, “granted by the Constitution to the legislative, executive and judicial authorities may be temporarily entrusted to the institutions of international law.” The Constitution of 1868 declared the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg a constitutional monarchy.

The head of state is the Grand Duke. His powers were very extensive. However, amendments to the Constitution introduced in 1919 significantly curtailed his rights. The Grand Duke represents the country in foreign relations, concludes international treaties, and has the right, with the consent of parliament, to declare war and make peace. He appoints and dismisses members of the government. To a certain extent, he participates in the exercise of legislative power by exercising his right of legislative initiative, approval and promulgation of adopted laws. The Grand Duke also has a number of rights in relation to Parliament. He opens and closes its sessions, may postpone its meetings, and, if necessary, convene an emergency session; he has the right to dissolve parliament. The Grand Duke appoints ministers. He also has some judicial powers.

Legislative power is exercised by the Luxembourg parliament - the Chamber of Deputies. It is a representative unicameral body elected for a term of five years by general elections on the basis of proportional representation. The Chamber of Deputies has 60 members. Its main function is the adoption of laws. The procedure for adopting laws is as follows: before putting a bill to a vote, the Chamber of Deputies must send it for consideration to specially created sections. After the section members give their opinion, the bill is put to a vote. If a law is passed by the Chamber of Deputies, it must be approved by the Grand Duke and signed by the minister whose competence it relates to. As a general rule, a law is considered to come into force three days after its publication.

The government of Luxembourg exercises executive power, formally belonging to the Grand Duke; in fact, it conducts all domestic and foreign policy. The government consists of a chairman, called the Minister of State, and ministers. The government must consist of at least three people. Members of the government cannot be members of parliament. Each minister usually heads several ministries. The government is responsible for its activities to the Chamber of Deputies. In order to provide assistance to the government, the state has created the Institute of Government Advisors.

The Council of State plays a very prominent role in the structure of government bodies in Luxembourg. It consists of the highest officials of the court and prosecutor's office and the most senior officials. Members of the Council are appointed by the Grand Duke for life, but he has the right to remove them from office, indicating the reasons for his decision. The most important functions of the Council are the consideration and discussion of bills and administrative jurisdiction. Any bill must be examined by the Council of State before it enters the Chamber of Deputies. The Council expresses its opinion on the bill and transmits it to the Grand Duke, who in turn forwards the draft to the Chamber of Deputies. The Council of State not only has the right to express its opinion on the bill, it also has the right of suspensive veto. The State Council is the highest body for the consideration of administrative cases: it examines complaints against the actions of officials, applies disciplinary penalties to civil servants, and considers administrative disputes.

The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that among the countries of the European Union, Luxembourg is of particular interest for study, since with a small area and a small number of inhabitants, this state is an active participant in the events taking place in the European Union and plays a significant role among the EU countries.

Of particular value are the works of L.G. Khodov. “Economic condition and problems of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Russian Foreign Economic Bulletin”, which describes the economic state of Luxembourg very well and in detail, paying attention to foreign economic relations with EU countries, the state and difficulties of the national economy of countries that play a significant role in the world economy; the factors that determine the prospects for their development are constantly studied by economists and discussed in the media.
Less attention is paid to mid-sized resources and states. It is very rare to find publications about small states in the domestic economic press.
Meanwhile, some small countries represent the most interesting economic phenomena, successfully using their limited resources and achieving noticeable economic success against the backdrop of the leading world powers. Factors that determine their development and well-being are often unusual in other countries.

The history and structure of Luxembourg can be found in such authors as Kill J. “Thousand-Year Luxembourg”, Birzhakov M.B., Nikiforov V.I. Tourism industry: transportation.

Interesting and useful information about cooperation and prospects for possible cooperation between Luxembourg and EU countries is presented in such works as: Butorina O.V. “Economic and monetary union of the EU in the world”, Glukharev L.I. “Europe of Change: Concepts and Strategies for Integration Processes.” This monograph was prepared by a team of authors, representatives of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, Academy of Sciences of the Russian Federation, other universities, Federation Council. It represents an interdisciplinary analysis of changes and new phenomena in the theory and strategy of integration processes of the strategic partnership between Russia and the European Union.

Drobkov V.A. “At the crossroads of roads, cultures, histories: Essays on Belgium and Luxembourg”, Zuev V.N. "The phenomenon of the supranational economic mechanism of the European Union."

In his lectures, the head of the department of international law at the Law Institute of Moscow State Social University, Professor Yu.D. Ilyin “Lectures on the history and law of the European Union” talks about the main institutions of the European Union (EU), the sources of its law, the relationship between EU law and national law, the mechanism for implementing EU decisions, the legal basis for the EU’s participation in external relations.

In general, it should be said that there are only a few fundamental works that include sections concerning various aspects of the problems of this research (theory, history, prospects) in domestic historiography, which indicates the need for further study and systematization of materials and documents on this topic.

Eduard Malayan's interview with Guide Luxembourg is of interest.

In the course of writing this work, the work of foreign authors was extremely useful: D. Spence “Foreign Ministries in National and European Context”, E. Clark “Corps Diplomatique”, D. Heater “The Idea of European Unity”, W. Molle “The Economics” of European Integration: Theory Practice, Policy.”

When forming the source base for this study, the following documents were used: Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) of March 25, 1957, Treaty on the European Union, Documents establishing the European Communities, Single European Act, Treaty on European Union, documents of the European Union , Constitution of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg of October 17, 1868. Also studied were the Treaty of Utrecht, the Treaty of Rastatt, the Treaty of Westphalia, the Treaty of London, the Schengen Agreement of 1990, the Maastricht Treaty, the Agreement on the Unification of Customs Duties, the Brussels Pact, the Benelux Memorandum of 1955 year, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons between the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

The purpose of the work is to study the relationships and prospects for cooperation between Luxembourg and the European Union.

The objectives of the work are:

· Explore the history of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg

· Analyze the socio-economic situation of Luxembourg

· Describe the role and participation of Luxembourg in the European Union

· Study and describe the international relations of Luxembourg with EU countries

The object of the study is the development of relations between Luxembourg and the European Union, the formation of integration relationships between them.

The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the fact that, despite the presence of a number of publications, the issue of relations between the economic integration of Luxembourg and the EU is not sufficiently covered in the domestic economic literature.

The methodological and theoretical basis for writing this work was works of a general theoretical and economic nature, collective monographs, and other publications.

. Grand Duchy of Luxembourg - the heart of the European Union

.1 History of Luxembourg

Luxembourg is a small state in the center of Europe. Its geographical location largely determined the country's very rich history. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg borders Germany, France and Belgium, which means a lot for the history of this state.

The country has a total area of 2.6 thousand square meters. km, located mainly on a hilly plain (up to 400 m in height), in the north there are spurs of the Ardennes.

Luxembourg was first mentioned in 963 as a castle, in the Middle Ages it was part of the county, and from the 14th century. - duchy, Grand Duchy within modern borders since 1839

For many centuries there was an almost continuous struggle for the possession of Luxembourg. This was due to its convenient geographical location at the crossroads of fairly important trade routes and the wealth of natural resources.

The history of Luxembourg is mainly dominated by foreign sovereignties. Luxembourg, which was on the path of many conquerors, more than once fell under the rule of German, French, Austrian, Dutch and Spanish rulers. Despite numerous changes in political status, he retained his identity and gained independence.

In 1354, the County of Luxembourg became a duchy and thanks to this its prestige increased.

In 1437, the dynasty of the Counts of Luxembourg extinguished and the torch passed into the hands of the Spanish Habsburgs. In 1443, Luxembourg came into the possession of Philip III of Burgundy, which decided its immediate fate: integrated into the Burgundian State, then into the Netherlands, Luxembourg would mediate between the kingdom of France and the German Empire.

The rule of the Spaniards was perhaps the most difficult in the entire history of Luxembourg: the Inquisition, exorbitant taxes, the export of material assets, the oppression and ruin of the peasants, the use of the local population as soldiers for the wars that Spain constantly waged both in Europe and in its overseas possessions. When the Netherlands rebelled against the King of Spain, Luxembourg remained neutral. As a result of this rebellion, the duchy came into the possession of the rebel side.

As a result, in 1648, the north of the Spanish Netherlands became the Dutch Republic (according to the Treaty of Westphalia), and Luxembourg, like the southern part of the Netherlands, remained a possession of the Spanish crown. Only in 1714 (according to the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt) it was transferred to Austria.

Austria controlled Luxembourg until the French Revolution in the 18th century. By this time, a large number of wars had brought the country to a deplorable state, which was aggravated by natural disasters that destroyed crops in the fields, vineyards and orchards. The population was dying of hunger, so those who had the opportunity moved to America or Canada. During this time, the country lagged far behind in its development. And yet, the inhabitants of Luxembourg gradually, very slowly, revived their land (largely thanks to the rich deposits of iron ore, as metalworking developed and various plants and factories appeared). Cities grew slowly and were relatively small. So, by the end of the 18th century. the city of Luxembourg had about 9 thousand inhabitants.

In 1792, Luxembourg was occupied by the troops of revolutionary France, and already on October 1, 1795, by decision of the Convention, it was annexed to France as the new Department of Forêt (Department of Forests). This led to the collapse of the feudal order that dominated the country and the establishment of a new bourgeois system. In addition, French legislation was extended to Luxembourg, serfdom and feudal duties of peasants, and the privileges of the nobility and clergy were abolished. The monasteries were liquidated, and their property was declared a national treasure. The bourgeoisie came to power

After the fall of Napoleon's empire, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 decided to separate Luxembourg from France and proclaimed it an independent Grand Duchy. Two different sovereignties were created by the decision of this congress: the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Luxembourg. At the same time, part of his lands, such as the lands along the right bank of the Moselle, went to Prussia, and the king of the Netherlands now began to be called the Grand Duke of Luxembourg. Reduced in territorial size, Luxembourg, which was part of the German Confederation, was associated with the German Confederation until the collapse of the union in 1866. Throughout the existence of the German Confederation, Luxembourg was ruled by the Kings of the Netherlands, William I, William II and William III.

The period from 1866-1867 in the history of Luxembourg is known as the Luxembourg Crisis.

Since the summer of 1866, King William III believed that it was in his interests to get rid of Luxembourg in favor of a great power that would guarantee him unlimited possession of Limburg. Ownership of Luxembourg, firstly, was not economically profitable, secondly, it was fraught with foreign policy complications, and thirdly, the duchy was strongly “Frenchized”. The territory of Luxembourg was claimed by Prussia and France. Great Britain saw attempts to annex it as a threat to Belgium.

William III was a very wasteful monarch and was constantly in need of money. Another reason why William III wanted to sell Luxembourg was his mistress Madame Musard, to whom the king promised a million as a gift.

Initially, William III had the idea of transferring Luxembourg to his brother Henry. This could end the existence of a personal union between the duchy and the Netherlands. But, since he wanted to receive monetary compensation, William III was not against selling it to France.

A feature of Napoleon III's policy was the need for his constant legitimation through foreign policy successes. However, both domestic and foreign policy were developing extremely unfavorably for France at this time. Firstly, in 1866 a period of economic crisis began, which became more widespread over time. Secondly, due to the not entirely thought-out policy of Napoleon III, France faced almost complete international isolation. In Europe, the French emperor was looked at as an upstart, and he tried in every way to show his greatness. As a result, relations with Russia deteriorated due to attempts to use the Polish question, which aggravated in connection with the uprising of 1863, as a tool of pressure on the tsarist government.

Due to colonial policy, serious friction arose with Great Britain. In London they did not hide their sympathy for the Bismarck government. A military expedition to Mexico with the aim of creating a puppet empire there, under the control of France, caused acute discontent with the United States. The presence of the French garrison in Rome in order to protect the power of the Pope gave rise to disapproving responses throughout Europe. Napoleon needed to smooth out the impressions of recent failures as quickly as possible by any means: both military triumph and diplomatic success.

The situation in Europe on the eve of the Luxembourg crisis was tense. Firstly, by this time the conflict between Prussia and Austria about the further unification of Germany had become most acute. Both countries aspired to become centers around which the German states would rally. At the same time, unification processes were underway in Italy. The tangle of contradictions that accumulated between these participants in international politics eventually resulted in a war that lasted from June 17 to July 26, 1866 and had important consequences for the development of the conflict over Luxembourg.

During this confrontation, Prussia was supported by Italy, and the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I turned to France for help. Franz Joseph told Napoleon III that he was ready to transfer to him the Venetian region (at that time under Austrian control) subject to its cession to Italy, as well as his intervention in order to achieve peace from this country and a truce from Prussia. Thus, another power was involved in this conflict. For France, this was a chance to improve its affairs in the international arena either militarily or diplomatically. The Emperor chose the second one.

The result of the 1866 war shocked Europe: Prussia defeated Austria's allies in Bavaria and defeated Benedek's Austrian army at the Battle of Sadowa.

Even before the war of 1866, on October 4, 1865, at negotiations in Biarritz, Napoleon III presented Prussia with claims to the Rhineland in exchange for neutrality, but was refused. And in the summer of 1866, Bismarck, taking advantage of Napoleon III’s wounded pride due to internal and external failures, supported his illusions about the expansion of France and proposed “Belgium and even added Luxembourg to it.” This was the beginning of the Luxembourg crisis.

The beginning of the events of the Luxembourg crisis is considered to be August 10, 1866, when the French Ambassador to Prussia V. Benedetti arrived in Paris to present Bismarck’s proposals to Napoleon. Napoleon happily approved them and instructed Benedetti to convey two treaties to the chancellor: according to the first, Prussia allows France to acquire Luxembourg in the near future; the second (more distant in terms of time) provided for the conclusion of an alliance between the two powers. His conditions were that France would take possession of Belgium, and Prussia would extend its hegemony to the river. Main.

For Prussia, the terms of the proposed treaty promised a lot. However, Bismarck's position lay on a different plane. First, as he said later, “Prussia should never be indebted to France for its future position in Germany.” Secondly, Bismarck was well informed about the position of England, which would never allow the occupation of Belgium by another power; and about the position of Russia, whose ruling circles sympathized more with Prussia than with Austria. The actual implementation of the terms of this treaty would lead Prussia to an undesirable complication of relations with both powers.

Luxembourg (for now together with Belgium) was only bait in order to quarrel between France and England and to secure the latter’s favorable position in case of war. If made public, such a game could ruin Anglo-Prussian relations. “But in every diplomatic maneuver to attract a partner lies the danger of getting into a delicate situation yourself. The challenge is to leave no visible traces of your own initiative.”

Therefore, Bismarck did not record his proposals in writing anywhere, and having received Napoleon’s response, he only expressed a desire to make the treaty secret and make minor changes. So the chancellor ensured that “the combination turned out to be recorded in writing by the French hand.” While the French were checking every letter in the defensive-offensive alliance with Prussia, Bismarck concluded the Peace of Prague with Austria (August 23, 1866): the Austrian-controlled German Confederation was dissolved, and in its place the North German Confederation was formed, in which Prussia played a leading role.

After signing this treaty, Bismarck changed his position regarding the alliance with France. He appealed to the fact that it would be very difficult to obtain the consent of the Prussian King William I. Accurately sensing the problems of the Second Empire and the importance for it of an alliance treaty with Prussia, Bismarck said that he could not conclude it until Paris publicly approved Prussia and declared that its interests were satisfied. This would mean recognition of all points of the Prague Treaty. Napoleon III agreed to this and tried to continue negotiations on the alliance, but Bismarck, who masterfully mastered the art of delaying them, evaded them.

At the end of 1866, Napoleon abandoned his plans for Belgium, hoping to annex Luxembourg in the near future. To do this, he needed Prussian approval. Bismarck unexpectedly accepted the diplomatic advances of the French side, which began at the end of January 1867, favorably.

March 1867 at a meeting of the Legislative Corps of L.A. Thiers criticized the French policy that led to Prussia becoming the head of Northern Germany, and demanded that the government declare that it would not allow the Berlin cabinet to seek new benefits and subordination of the southern German states to its policies.

Bismarck's reaction followed on March 19 - 20: secret agreements between Prussia and Bavaria and Baden on a military alliance, concluded back in August 1866, were published.

William III decided that France and Prussia were about to quarrel and immediately suspended negotiations. Despite the French side's insistence on keeping them secret, he sent an official request to the Prussian king to get his opinion on the deal to sell Luxembourg. He answered in unclear terms, and Bismarck again began to rush Napoleon. The French emperor promised William III the 10 million francs he demanded. In return, the Dutch king was asked to conclude a defensive alliance that would guarantee Limburg for Holland in the event of the sale of Luxembourg to France. The treaty was drawn up, and on March 31 the French government spread the news of its alleged major diplomatic success throughout Europe.

April Bismarck and the head of the National Liberal Party R. Benningsen staged a small performance in the Reichstag. Benningsen asked on behalf of Germany how true the rumors about the transfer of Luxembourg to France were, and recalling the words of the Prussian king that “without his consent not a single village will be taken from Germany,” demanded intervention. The Chancellor, in extremely friendly terms for France, stated that in order to resolve the controversial issue, the Prussian government would take into account the powers that had signed the old treaties, the members of the North German Confederation and public opinion represented by the Reichstag. These words caused new confusion in The Hague.

April, the Prussian representative Count Perponcher notified William III of his government's absolute veto regarding the sale of Luxembourg. On April 5, the Berlin cabinet also announced a decisive renunciation of its interest in Limburg. This automatically removed one of the main reasons for the sale of Luxembourg.

The war that was about to break out as a result of these events, however, did not take place. Different historians give different reasons. Among them there is the idea that France was not ready for it (economic crisis and unrealized military reform). In addition, in 1867, the World Industrial Exhibition opened in Paris with great publicity - a manifestation of peace and reconciliation. Starting a war at this time would further damage the prestige of the empire.

Another idea, in turn, points to the insufficient readiness of Prussia, which had not yet had time to recover from the war with Austria. Moreover, while Prussia felt especially insecure at sea, feeling the superiority of the French.

Another reason: despite all Bismarck’s efforts to build the image of an enemy in France, the southern states at the decisive moment did not show any enthusiasm for war over such a pathetic issue as the Luxembourg Question.

Thanks to these conditions, the convening of an international conference became possible. It opened in London and worked for 4 days (May 7 - 11, 1867). It included Austria, Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia. France, in order to somehow maintain prestige after another fiasco, demanded the withdrawal of German troops from Luxembourg. After discussion, the London Treaty was signed. He proclaimed the neutralization of Luxembourg, the preservation of its membership in the German Customs Union, and the collective guarantee of the duchy's neutrality by all participants in the conference. Prussia undertook, after ratifying the treaty, to withdraw its garrison from Luxembourg, and Luxembourg - to destroy all fortifications and not to build them in the future. Luxembourg was also prohibited from having its own large military formations on its territory. To maintain internal order and tranquility in the country, only two companies of gendarmes and volunteers with a total number of 300 people were left.

For Prussian politics, the Luxembourg crisis contributed to the acceleration of the approval of the constitution of the North German Confederation and the strengthening of military ties between Prussia and the southern German states. He demonstrated that the war of 1866 did not completely eliminate Austria as a factor in German politics. Austrian influence in the southern German states still left its mark on their policies and had a rather significant impact on Prussian plans. This had to be overcome soon.

For France, from a foreign policy point of view, the crisis contributed to undermining international prestige and revealing a significant degree of its isolation. The Luxembourg crisis demonstrated the low degree of its readiness for war. Together with the economic crisis, it also caused even greater public censure of the policies of Napoleon III and formed the basis for the impending explosion.

Public opinion in Germany also reacted with extreme irritation to the outcome of the crisis - the Treaty of London, considering it humiliating for the German fatherland and demanding revenge.

Thus, the Luxembourg Question, which in the hands of Bismarck became a weapon to involve France in international isolation, formed the basis of the causes of the armed conflict that broke out between France and Prussia in 1870.

The decision of the London Conference was confirmed in the Luxembourg Constitution (1868), which declared the Grand Duchy to be “an independent, indivisible and inalienable, eternally neutral state.” Having recognized the Grand Duke as the head of state, as before, the Constitution at the same time limited his rights by assigning legislative functions to the Chamber of Deputies of 54 people, elected for six years by universal direct elections. The government, appointed by the Grand Duke, was to be responsible to the Chamber of Deputies.

The proclamation of Luxembourg as a neutral, free and independent state freed it from the burden of military expenses and military service, which contributed to the growth of economic activity and the rise in the well-being of the population. The acquisition of state independence was of great importance for the state's economy and contributed to the acceleration of economic development. The metallurgical industry began to grow especially quickly. This industry specialization was the result of active development (in the 1890s) of iron ore reserves located in the south of the country. 90% of all products in the country were exported. At the same time, mechanical engineering and the food industry began to develop (in the capital area), as well as, in some regions, chemical and leather production.

In the first half of the 20th century, Luxembourg was engulfed in world wars. Luxembourg's neutrality was violated several times. During the First World War, Luxembourg again found itself under German rule: having captured the city, the troops of the German Empire held it for several years. The same sad fate awaited Luxembourg during the Second World War; the city was captured by fascist troops in May 1940 and annexed to Hitler's Reich in August 1942. In response to this, the population declared a general strike, to which the Germans responded with massive repressions. About 30 thousand residents, or more than 10% of the total population, including most young men, were arrested and expelled from the country. Luxembourg was liberated by allied Anglo-American units only in February 1945.

Luxembourg took part in many post-war international agreements. He participated in the establishment of the UN, Benelux (which also included Belgium and the Netherlands), NATO and the EU. Luxembourg's role in the Council of Europe is also significant. Luxembourg signed the Schengen Agreement in June 1990, abolishing border controls in the Benelux countries, France and Germany. In February 1992, the country signed the Maastricht Treaty. Two representatives of Luxembourg - Gaston Thorne (1981-1984) and Jacques Santerre (since 1995) - served as presidents of EU commissions. Luxembourg, despite its small size, was one of the top ten countries in the world for the production of iron and steel, most of which was exported.

The great dependence of Luxembourg, like other Benelux countries, on the outside world and interest in attracting foreign capital, initially English, led to the signing of an agreement on the unification of customs duties (September 1944), and in 1948 the Benelux countries united into their own customs union. In the same year, together with England and France, they signed the Brussels Pact on the creation of the Western Union (since 1954, the Western European Union).

The beginning of the Cold War, the inclusion of Luxembourg and the rest of the Benelux countries in the Marshall Plan and the anti-communist wave that swept Western Europe predetermined the choice of the policy of “Atlanticism”. In April 1949, the Benelux countries joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Interestingly, for this purpose, the article on neutrality was removed from the Luxembourg constitution. The trends in the economic and political development of Luxembourg, observed in the post-war period and finally taking shape in the early 50s, largely determined its position in the second half of the 20th century.

Luxembourg, like the rest of the Benelux countries, in its economic development in the 50-60s. made a significant leap. However, the modernization of production, its structural restructuring, and the entry of countries into the Common Market caused social tension and the growth of the labor movement. Another important issue in the early 60s. the national-linguistic question arose. For decades, French-speaking millions have been privileged. However, in recent decades, these industries have lost their former purpose. The north began to come to the fore with its developing light and electronics industries. The basis of Luxembourg's economy remained the ferrous metallurgy. In terms of ore mining and iron and steel smelting per capita, Luxembourg firmly held first place in the world. Since consumption of metallurgical industry products within the country did not exceed 1-4%, then 96-99% was exported. The one-sided nature of the economy and its export nature increased Luxembourg's dependence on foreign capital, especially American and West German capital.

70s characterized by the expansion of banking activities in the country, which was associated with the development of Western European integration.

The Christian Social People's Party (CSPP), whose program was virtually no different from other Benelux parties, remained the leading party in Luxembourg. The HSNP coalitions alternated with the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSWP) and the Democratic Party (PD). Despite the fact that the leading KhSNP and other supporters of “Atlanticism” and loyalty to NATO advocated the preservation of military service, in 1967 the Chamber of Deputies adopted a law abolishing compulsory military service and forming an army of volunteers.

In general, the internal political situation in Luxembourg was more stable, which, of course, is associated with one of the highest standards of living in Western Europe. The Benelux countries continued to support all projects to deepen Western European integration with all their might. They have been part of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) since its founding in 1951. In 1955, the ECSC Foreign Ministers' Conference adopted the “Benelux Memorandum” on the principles of economic integration, which was drafted by the Dutch Minister Beijen. In 1957, the European Economic Community (EEC) was formed. Brussels and Luxembourg became the capitals of the United Europe, hosting a number of its institutions and organizations. That same year, the three countries created an Economic Union to harmonize their agricultural policies. It should be noted that “Europeanism” meant not only economic integration, but also the strengthening of the military-political union of the Benelux countries.

However, along with the desire to strengthen their positions in Europe through integration, the Benelux countries remained faithful to the principles of “Atlanticism”. 1960s witnessed the struggle between supporters of “Atlanticism” and “Europeanism”, the most acute forms of which appeared in Luxembourg and Holland. Never before have issues of war and peace acquired such relevance. After France left the military organization and Luxembourg’s refusal to host the headquarters of NATO’s armed forces in Europe in its country, it “settled” in Belgium. In 1968, under public pressure, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

Since the mid-80s. Luxembourg, together with the rest of the Benelux countries, is once again actively participating in the new stage of European integration. They supported the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1991, which agreed on the principles by which the European Union would be built.

Political stability and banking laws guaranteeing the secrecy of deposits have attracted large investments in Luxembourg's industrial and service sectors.

In the general elections in June 1999, the ruling KSNP and LSRP suffered setbacks: they received 19 and 13 seats out of 60, respectively, losing 2 and 4 seats. On the contrary, the Democrats strengthened their position, taking 15 seats in parliament (3 more than in 1994). 7 seats were won by the association of pensioners, 5 by the Greens, 1 by the left bloc. After the elections, a new government was formed from representatives of the KSNP and the Democratic Party, led by Jean-Claude Juncker, who was re-elected to this post in 2004.

In October 2000, Grand Duke Jean abdicated the throne, citing old age, in favor of his son, Prince Henri.

In 2002, the euro became the country's national currency.

The new head of state sets the country’s further economic growth as his top priority, for which, as he states, there are all the necessary components: “Luxembourg enjoys international trust due to its economic stability, due to its advantageous location in the very center of Europe, multinational structure, hard work of the people and social world. All these are trump cards to attract foreign investment.” Secondly, but not least, he considers the consolidation of the unity of the country to be the goal of his upcoming activities as head of state.

Luxembourg may be a small state, but it has a rich history. The recognition of Luxembourg as independent and the adoption of the Constitution was an incentive for the development of domestic political life. The freedoms she proclaimed, in particular freedom of unions and the press, contributed to the creation of political parties representing various strata of society and the growth of national self-awareness. This allowed the welfare of the population to grow and the state to become one of the richest countries in Europe.

Thus, we can conclude: foreign policy relations are aimed at the most active participation in the EU

Luxembourg is one of the largest financial centers in Europe.

1.2 Socio-economic situation of Luxembourg

The beginnings of Luxembourg's industry date back to the mid-nineteenth century, dominated by the steel industry. This dominance continued until the oil shock in 1973, which contributed to the transformation of Luxembourg's industry into a service economy.

In 2002, ARBED (the steelworks) merged with two other steel companies, Usinor and Aceralia and Arcelor, to become a leader in global steel production. The merger with Mittal Steel in 2006 formed the ArcelorMittal group, number one in the world of steel.

Industrial diversification is one of the goals of permanent economic policy. This contributed to the emergence of other industries, such as those related to materials (DuPont Nemours, Guardian Glass) and pet products, automotive (Goodyear, Delphi).

Financial market. Since 1921, Luxembourg has been in an economic union with Belgium. International trade. The volume of goods exports is $8.5 billion (2002). The share of EU countries is 85.3%, including France - 20.8%, Germany - 24.8%. The volume of imports was $11.6 billion in 2002, including from EU countries - 84.3% (from Belgium - 34.5%, Germany - 25.5%). Trade turnover between Luxembourg and Russia in 2003 amounted to 46.99 million euros. Foreign capital is actively flowing into the country, largely due to preferential taxes on holding, financial, investment companies and funds.

Specializes in activities based on the European market. In 1960 and 1970, the financial market then turned to private management and, from 1980, to the domicile and administration of investment funds.

Its success is based primarily on political and social stability, which allows, based on the regulatory framework of the modern market, to constantly adapt to market changes through constant dialogue between the government, the legislature and the private sector.

The Luxembourg financial market is the second global investment fund center after the United States, and the largest European center in the euro area.

Luxembourg has always played a leading role in the media scene in Europe. Two giants of media and communications were born in Luxembourg and continue their development today from the Grand Duchy: RTL Group, the first diffuser of European television and radio and SES, a leading provider of communications and broadcasting services with a fleet of 40 satellites.

Luxembourg also has a high level of specialists
working in the computer industry, which allows them to have high performance in information security and telecommunications networks.
In this regard, in addition to many small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), multinational corporations of the digital economy such as Amazon.com, eBay, PayPal, iTunes, Netflix, Skype or Vodafone, as well as big names in the field of gaming (online games), like Innova, Kabam or Nexon are currently located in the Grand Duchy. They confirm Luxembourg's positioning as a major hub for companies operating in the fields of data processing, e-commerce and communications in general.

The government has in recent years been turning to significant investment in research and development of a series of direct and indirect tools to advance this field.

Therefore, a legal framework for promoting research, development and innovation was created in June 2009 to enhance the ability of business innovation and the organization of private and public research.

The government has allocated €140 million to the health technology development sectors and is still promoting economic diversification into a leading sector growing.

In addition, the government promotes the development of environmental technologies and rethinks all activities in the production of goods and services from the point of view of developing sustainable economic growth.

Luxembourg City is home to many EU organizations. Thanks to favorable conditions and an offshore zone, about 1,000 investment funds and more than 200 banks are located in the capital - more than in any other city in the world. Second place in the world in terms of income ($ 39,840 per person per year).

Weaknesses: Revenue from services to international partners accounts for 65% of GDP, making the country sensitive to changes in other countries.

Sectoral structure of the economy: agriculture - 1%, industry - 24%, service sector - 75% of GDP. The country's industrial specialization is iron ore mining and ferrous metallurgy; in terms of steel production per capita (more than 10 tons), Luxembourg ranks first in the world. The merger of the only Luxembourg company, Arbed, with the French group Usinor - Sasilor, led to the creation in 2001 of the largest steel mill in the world with a production capacity of more than 50 million tons of steel per year. The chemical industry and mechanical engineering are developed.

Animal husbandry predominates in agriculture, and viticulture and winemaking are developed. Luxembourg is a major center of international financial activity: banking, insurance and financial services grew from 1.4% in 1960 to 15% of the value of GDP in 1999, the Luxembourg stock exchange is called the “financial heart” of Europe.

The basis of the economy is primarily the developed service sector, including in the financial field.

In 1995, gross domestic product was estimated at $17.1 billion, or $44,172 per capita (versus $26,556 in Belgium and $43,233 in Switzerland). Based on purchasing power parity, the expenditures of the Luxembourg population in per capita terms were $16,827 (in the USA - $17,834). Annual GNP growth averaged 5.5% in the early 1990s, well above the average for EU member states. Banking plays an important role in the Luxembourg economy, and considerable attention is paid to the creation of telecommunications networks and the production of audio and video equipment. Chemical products, machines, plastics, fabrics, glass, porcelain are produced. Many new businesses were created by large US firms. For foreign companies, a very attractive factor is that local workers speak several languages.

GDP volume according to PPP is $22.76 billion. Per capita GDP equal to $50,200 puts the country in first place in the world. The monetary unit is the euro. Average annual GDP growth rates in 1990-2003. - 0.7%.

Almost all energy consumed in Luxembourg is imported, including oil, natural gas, and coal. Banking and financial services became a major economic activity, accounting for 31.9% of GDP and 9.2% of employment in 1995. Luxembourg is one of the financial centers of Europe, and in 1995 there were representative offices of 220 foreign banks, which were attracted by the most favorable banking laws in the EU adopted in the late 1970s, guaranteeing the secrecy of deposits. Since entering the eurozone, the euro has been circulating in Luxembourg (previously, the Luxembourg franc and the Belgian franc were in circulation, issued by the Luxembourg Monetary Institute, which patronizes the financial sector). The central bank is the National Bank of Belgium.

In the 1996 budget, revenues amounted to 159 billion Luxembourg francs, and expenses - 167.2 billion. Indirect taxes accounted for 42% of all revenues, and direct taxes - 48%. Total tax revenues amounted to 45% of GDP - the highest figure for EU countries.

Luxembourg's foreign trade is linked to Belgium's foreign trade, and the National Bank of Belgium handles Luxembourg's international operations. Most industrial products are exported, with 1/3 of them being metals and finished products. Luxembourg fully imports energy resources for industry - coal and oil; automobiles, textiles, cotton, food and agricultural machinery are also imported. Until the mid-1970s, the balance of trade was generally positive, with export receipts exceeding import costs, but declines in steel production changed the balance significantly. In 1995, the value of exports amounted to 7.6 billion dollars, and the value of imports - 9.7 billion. The trade balance is reduced due to large incomes of the financial sector. Luxembourg's main foreign trade partners are EU countries. In 2008, Luxembourg was recognized as the richest country in the EU.

The Luxembourg real estate market is one of the most conservative in Europe. According to the Global Property Guide, the average price per square meter in 2008 is 4,745 €. Rental rates are about 4% per annum. Recently, as elsewhere in the world, the rate of price growth has been decreasing. This reflects the global economic situation. At the same time, real estate still remains the most profitable market compared, for example, to the stock market. The annual nominal (excluding inflation) price increase in the period from 2004 to 2008 varied between 5% - 20% for apartments and 0% - 10% for houses.

The quality of construction in Luxembourg follows a high standard of living and is generally better than in neighboring France, Germany and Belgium. Foreigners in Luxembourg can freely purchase real estate. The one-time tax on the purchase of a house or apartment will be 7% of the transaction amount. In case of purchasing housing on the primary market, the price will also include 15% VAT. All registration of the transaction is carried out by a notary. Any options for fraud are practically excluded.

Luxembourg is one of the most economically developed countries in the world. According to the European statistical office Eurostat, in 2010 Luxembourg's GDP was more than twice the European average. The example of Luxembourg can be considered one of the most successful in terms of economic development - in the period from 1980-2000. the average annual GDP growth was more than 5%. Among the factors that influenced such growth rates are: the dynamic development of the service sector (primarily financial, as well as transport, telecommunications, computer, etc.); highly efficient and competitive industry; successful investment policy; relatively low taxes on personal income, allowing to maintain labor costs at a competitive level.

The basis of Luxembourg's economy is formed by the service sector, which is typical for developed countries at the present stage. According to 2011 data, the share of the service sector in the country's GDP exceeded 86%. The financial sector is of great importance for Luxembourg - it accounts for about 28% of GDP, and today Luxembourg is one of the largest financial centers in the world. It is noteworthy that such a serious breakthrough in the financial sector was accomplished in no more than one decade, and by the mid-80s - early 90s of the last century, Luxembourg was able to significantly diversify its economy. Today, approximately 47 thousand people are employed in the financial services sector in Luxembourg. In addition to financial services, transport, telecommunications, information technology and other high-tech services are also developed in Luxembourg.

Luxembourg's industry is also highly diversified. Initially, the country was focused mainly on the steel industry, however, today in Luxembourg such types of industries as chemical (production of plastic and synthetic materials), glass, woodworking, mechanical engineering (production of automotive components, electrical equipment, instrument making), metal processing, production of medical and diagnostic equipment. In addition, Luxembourg, like other countries, is committed to sustainable development, and various environmental technologies are actively developing in the country. Today, numerous companies operating in industries such as steel recycling, wind energy, solar energy, heat-reflective glass for automobiles, and others profit from environmentally friendly products and processes.

The development of innovation clusters also plays an important role. Currently, clusters have been created in the country working in such areas as new materials, biomedicine, environmental technologies, space, and information technology.

Luxembourg has a very high dependence on energy and energy imports. The country fully imports energy resources for industry, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. In addition, Luxembourg imports vehicles, textiles, cotton, food and agricultural machinery.

Geographical distribution of Luxembourg's foreign trade 2009-2012 (million euros)

2009201020112012EU (27 countries)20613,524157,126455,425198,2Other European countries641,81051,81198,8903,5America854,0851,21515,32123,6Asia768,81000,11087,7125 1.1

The economy of Luxembourg has traditionally been open to the world economy. Foreign trade in goods and services is of paramount importance for the development of the economy of the Grand Duchy, which cannot rely solely on the domestic market to ensure development and sustainable growth. One proof of the high degree of involvement of the Luxembourg economy in the world economy is the fact that about 80% of goods and services produced in the country are intended for export.

Luxembourg plays a very important role in global trade in services. Thus, according to the World Trade Organization in 2011, Luxembourg ranked 19th in the world in exports of commercial services. The total volume of such exports amounted to 72.5 billion US dollars, and the share in world trade in services was 1.74%. In terms of imports of services, Luxembourg ranks 29th in the world with 41 billion euros (1.04% of the total).

In addition, Luxembourg is one of the leaders in attracting foreign investment. Factors contributing to this include a favorable geographical location, political and social stability, highly developed infrastructure, tax regime, etc.

Luxembourg can also be considered one of the world's main financial centers. The Grand Duchy ranks first in Europe and second in the world (after the USA) in terms of the number of investment funds located in the country. In terms of the number of private banks, Luxembourg also ranks first in Europe.

According to the Central Service for Statistics and Economic Research of Luxembourg “Statec”

In recent decades, the monetary and financial sphere of the country's economic activity has been expanding rapidly. The Grand Duchy, like Switzerland, is becoming a major international financial center with the highest concentration of international banks and other monetary institutions in the EU. In 1984, the number of banks reached 117, and by 2011 - 144. Luxembourg now ranks third in the European markets after London and Paris. Currently, the banking sector employs 5% of the total working population of Luxembourg.

Pursuing a policy of economic diversification, the government of the Duchy encourages the development of European markets in its country. At the same time, it seeks to combine liberal banking legislation, expressed in a simple procedure for opening banks, minimal obstacles in their current activities, financial control devoid of bureaucratic strictness, etc., with measures that would maintain the proper reputation of local European markets. For example, in April 1981, stricter secrecy rules were introduced regarding deposits and other customer information. As the major West German business magazine Capital notes, “an excellent refuge has been created for foreigners who would like to protect their money from taxes in their own country.” In Luxembourg, for example, there are also no taxes on inheritance, gold trading, dividends, exchange rate gains and stock exchange turnover.
The volume of banking transactions in the duchy has grown hundreds of times over the past decades. Today, banks provide 60-70% of all corporate taxes collected by the authorities. This represents about 15% of all government revenues. Western European banks own 91% of all assets.
German banks play the main role; they own approximately half of all capital. It is enough to note that Deutsche Bank carries out 90% of its foreign Eurocredit transactions through its Luxembourg subsidiary. Following the German banks is a group of Belgian-Luxembourg banks, controlling about 14% of foreign exchange and financial reserves. Next come the banks of the Scandinavian countries, France, Switzerland, USA, and Italy. Four Japanese banks are represented.
International financial activities are very profitable for the duchy. The credit and insurance business accounts for more than 30% of its GDP.
The entire economic and cultural life of Luxembourg is closely connected with neighboring countries and with Europe in general. Several international railway, highway and air lines pass through the duchy. The total length of railways is 370 km, including the length of narrow-gauge rail roads - 150 km. At 100 km 2The Luxembourg area has 19.5 km of lines (in France - 11.9 km, in the Netherlands - 9.9, in Belgium - 29.5 km). Most of the goods are transported by railways. International and transit transportation predominates. The main railway line of the duchy runs from north to south, from the North Sea ports to France (the cities of Nancy, Metz) and further to Switzerland (to Basel).

The capital of the Duchy - the city of Luxembourg - is an important transport hub in which eight road lines and five railway lines converge.

Navigation is carried out along the river. Moselle, which links Luxembourg with Lorraine in France and the Saarland in Germany. The largest port is Mertert. Dredging work has been carried out, making navigation easier. Along the river The Sauer is operated mainly by tourist boats (from the mouth of the Alzette to the confluence with the Moselle at Wasserbillig). Airlines connect Luxembourg with Paris, London, Brussels, Rome, Frankfurt am Main, Athens, Nice, and Vienna.

Having analyzed the economic situation, we can draw conclusions that Luxembourg is one of the most economically developed countries in the world. According to the European statistical office Eurostat, in 2010 Luxembourg's GDP was more than twice the European average. The example of Luxembourg can be considered one of the most successful in terms of economic development - in the period from 1980-2000. the average annual GDP growth was more than 5%. Among the factors that influenced such growth rates are: the dynamic development of the service sector (primarily financial, as well as transport, telecommunications, computer, etc.); highly efficient and competitive industry; successful investment policy; relatively low taxes on personal income, allowing to maintain labor costs at a competitive level.

There is interaction with Belgium - Luxembourg's foreign trade is linked to Belgium's foreign trade, and the National Bank of Belgium handles Luxembourg's international operations.

Almost all energy consumed in Luxembourg is imported, including oil, natural gas, and coal.

2. Luxembourg and EU countries

.1 Role of Luxembourg in the European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 European states that have signed the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty). Luxembourg is one of the six main founders of the EU. The EU is an international entity that combines the characteristics of an international organization and a state, but formally it is neither one nor the other. The Union is a subject of public international law, has the authority to participate in international relations and plays a major role in them.

The EU development process took place through, firstly, the transfer of an increasing number of management functions to the national level and, secondly, an increase in the number of integration participants.

Almost two-thirds of the EU population at the beginning of 2009 is concentrated in the five most populous countries - Germany (16.4%), France (12.8%), Great Britain (13.2%), Italy (12.0%) and Spain (9.2%). Luxembourg's share of the total EU population is 0.1%, which is approximately 0.5 million people.

However, despite its small size and small population, Luxembourg can compete with the largest European countries according to Erostat, which is the official statistical bureau of the European Communities, releasing annual data on GDP in member states, as well as the EU as a whole. Luxembourg has the highest standard of living among EU member states.

Since entering the eurozone, the euro has been circulating in Luxembourg (previously, the Luxembourg franc and the Belgian franc were in circulation, issued by the Luxembourg Monetary Institute, which patronizes the financial sector). The central bank is the National Bank of Belgium. In the 1996 budget, revenues amounted to 159 billion Luxembourg francs, and expenses - 167.2 billion. Indirect taxes accounted for 42% of all revenues, and direct taxes - 48%. Total tax revenues amounted to 45% of GDP - the highest figure for EU countries.

The development of European integration affects the strengthening of the ability of Luxembourg and other countries similar to it to directly and indirectly influence the economic, political and social components of other states. Today Luxembourg is an international financial center. Luxembourg's financial center features numerous banks, a growing number of investment funds, the leading position of the Luxembourg Stock Exchange and rapidly developing clearing services.

Freedom of movement of capital in the EU, the development of services in the banking sector, bank secrecy and a high level of professionalism continue to stimulate the development of a financial center in Luxembourg.
So, Luxembourg’s position in the EU was marked by a new and more successful period of development of the country’s economy, which was characterized by an increase in GDP, an improvement in the standard of living of the population, increased social security, and more open international trade.
Luxembourg City, the capital and largest city of the country, is home to several key institutions and organizations of the European Union. Moreover, it represents the fusion of the cultures of Roman and Germanic Europe.

Thus, characterizing Luxembourg in the system of international economic relations, it should be noted:

the decline in steel production significantly altered Luxembourg's trade balance, with export earnings exceeding import costs;

Luxembourg's membership in the EU has facilitated processes relating to the country's international trade;

thanks to the active encouragement of investment and innovation, Luxembourg is recognized by the government as the most attractive for foreign investors;

conditions have been created in the Grand Duchy to attract foreign labor and develop new high-tech industries.

It is also worth noting that 7,260 officials from European Union countries work in Luxembourg. In 1965 there were 1,634 and the number of “Eurocrats” has quadrupled over the past 20 years.

European employees found a new home in the Grand Duchy. They take part in the social, cultural and economic life of the country. When we talk about "Eurocrats", we must also mention those who chose to remain in this country to spend the peaceful days at the end of their careers. Currently there are about 500 retired EU officials.

There are several reasons for this. Friends, Europeans feel good in Luxembourg. Some have already spent most of their lives here. Many built their homes and adopted the lifestyle of citizens.

A number of European institutions or related services have their headquarters in Luxembourg.

May 1950, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs R. Schumann, inspired by the plan drawn up by J. Monnet, proposed to the German Chancellor of the era, K. Adenauer, to establish a supranational government. This power would exercise its competence in the field of heavy industry, which would be managed jointly, especially in the field of raw materials and resources previously necessary for the arms race and for military operations. The founding members of this first structure were France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.

In his lists, J. Monnet described how the city of Luxembourg was chosen as a temporary workplace. This event took place on July 23, 1952 in Paris, where, at three o'clock, after long negotiations on the Treaty of Paris, the voice of J. Beche (Foreign Minister of the Grand Duchy), who seemed to be dozing until then, was heard: “I propose that work begins immediately in Luxembourg, this will give us time to reflect on the continuation.” The whole world was consoled. And thus the ECSC had its secure place in this town, which became the crossroads of Europe."

With the creation of the European Economic Community by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, then the treaty merging the institutions separate from the European Coal and Steel Community and the EEC, Europe's connections and institutions expanded.

Thus, the position of the Secretary General of the European Parliament remained in Luxembourg as well as the Court of Justice of the European Communities (CJCE), while a number of units forming part of the general directions of the European Commission were transferred from Brussels to Luxembourg, the idea being that concentrate all the competence of both legal and financial activities of Europe on the Grand Duchy. And already the Luxembourgers dreamed of accepting the future European Central Bank, a dream that had never been realized before.

The Luxembourg government attaches importance to the fact that the European institutions established in Luxembourg have the infrastructure and conditions for their work.

EU Council sessions in Luxembourg . In April, June and October of each year, the Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) holds its sessions in Luxembourg, specifically at the Kirchberg Conference Center and the temporary Conference Center in Kiem.

Luxembourg currently has about 9,500 European Union officials, representing about 5.5% of the economically active population living there.

Institutions located in Luxembourg:

General Secretariat of the European Parliament . Since June 1979, the European Parliament has been elected by universal suffrage. It will have 567 representatives elected for a term of five years. The European Parliament has legislative powers, budgetary powers and control functions.

Its legislative powers were expanded by the Maastricht Treaty. The administration of the General Secretariat of Parliament is located in Luxembourg. The European Parliament is chosen by Strasbourg for its monthly plenary sessions and Brussels, for committee and group meetings, as well as short-term plenary sessions. In December 1992, the European Council confirmed Edinburgh as the General Headquarters of the Secretariat.

In such a specific body of the European Community, which is the European Parliament, the accuracy of the work of institutions located in three cities depends on the coherence of information and support services.

The key figure in the administrative services of the European Parliament is the Secretary General, who directs the work of a large secretariat and, together with the chairman, signs the minutes of parliamentary meetings. The Secretary General makes a solemn commitment to the Bureau to carry out his duties without any political, national or personal bias and with full responsibility. He is directly personally responsible to the Chairman and the Bureau for the day-to-day administration of all activities of Parliament and, under the leadership of the Chairman, monitors the execution of the Parliament's budget.

The constant increase in the workload of parliament has affected the organizational structure of the secretariat. If in 1952-1953. Under the leadership of the Secretary General, two services operated, the parliamentary service and the administration service, which in turn was divided into four departments, in which 37 employees worked. In subsequent years, the structure of the secretariat became more complicated.

Currently, the General Secretariat has a department for electronic information processing, a legal service and seven departments (in exact translation - general directorates): office management; commissions and delegations; information and public relations; research (including preparation of bibliography and references for deputies); personnel, budget and finance; administration; translations, publication and distribution of documents.

The 2 thousand officials working on the staff of the General Secretariat are its permanent employees, and they cannot be recalled by the governments of the member countries of the Community. They acquire the status of officials of the European Community and must refuse any other part-time work other than work in the European Community. They are prohibited from receiving instructions from governments, organizations or individuals other than their immediate superiors. A tax is levied on the salaries of secretariat officials, which goes to the budget of the Community, not the countries of which they are citizens. Pensions and social security of secretariat employees are also regulated by communal law.

In addition, the political groups of the European Parliament have their own secretariat, which is a corps of temporary employees (about 500).

Some services of the European Commission:

The European Commission is the highest executive body of the European Union. Responsible for the implementation of decisions of the Union, monitors compliance with its laws in member countries and, if necessary, initiates proceedings in the court of the European Union against member countries for violation of membership obligations.

It consists of 28 commissioners, who are appointed by a single agreement of the governments of the member countries for a five-year term. At least one representative from each member country must be represented on the Commission. The members of the Commission in their work do not represent the member state, but exclusively the European Union. All EU proposals must go through the Commission. Representatives of the Commission have the right to participate in the discussion of the proposal in all competent EU bodies.

The European Commission is formed every 5 years as follows. The Council of the EU, at the level of heads of state and/or government, proposes a candidate for the presidency of the European Commission, which is approved by the European Parliament. Further, the Council of the EU, together with the candidate for Chairman of the Commission, forms the proposed composition of the European Commission, taking into account the wishes of the member states. According to the general rule, developed on the basis of practice, former heads of national governments and ministers are appointed members of the European Commission. The composition of the “cabinet” must be approved by the European Parliament and finally approved by the EU Council.

The task of the European Commission is to coordinate the work of executive authorities of all EU countries, develop recommendations for the activities of the European Parliament, introduce legislative initiatives in order to bring the national legislation of EU member states into line with pan-European standards, monitor compliance by all 28 countries with common European standards, as well as the rights and human freedoms, conducting systematic consultations with all national governments to develop a unified economic (industrial, agricultural, fiscal, social, customs, currency, monetary, etc.), military, foreign, cultural policy.

The European Commission primarily contacts the ministers responsible for EU affairs in each of the governments of the 28 member states. The day-to-day administration of the EU is carried out within the framework of comitology.

Comitology is a system of numerous committees created by the Council of Ministers of the European Commission, which monitors the implementation of adopted EU legislative decisions.

All decisions of the European Commission are of an advisory nature only; all controversial issues are settled at the level of national governments.

In its executive branch, the Commission provides the rules and principles of the single market. It puts forward proposals to the Council of the European Union for the development of common policy and manages community policy on the basis of a decision of the Council or directly in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty. The European Commission is based in Brussels.

The following departments of the Commission are present (wholly or partly) in Luxembourg:

· Department of Translation (DGT);

· Directorate General of Health and Consumer Protection (Director General sanco);

· General Directorate of Personnel and Administration (ADMIN);

· Directorate-General for the Information Society (INFSO);

· Directorate of Economic and Financial Affairs (ECFIN);

· General Directorate of Employment and Social Affairs (SOTR);

· Directorate General of Transport and Energy (TREN);

· General Secretariat (SG)

· Legal Service (SJ)

· EAC, Education and Culture (library)

· Department of Infrastructure and Logistics (OIL)

· individual rights management (PMO)

· management, safety control of Euratom (OCSE);

· European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF)

· Press services and communications (PRESS)

· Representation of the European Commission in Luxembourg

· Office of Official Publications of the European Communities (OPOCE)

· Office of the European Commission in Luxembourg

· European Union Translation Center

The European Court "ensures compliance with clan suffrage and the interpretation and application of international treaties." It is located next to the Commission.

Accounts Chamber. The European Court of Auditors is one of the seven institutions that govern the European Union. The Chamber was created in 1975 to audit the budget of the union and its institutions.

The headquarters of the Court of Auditors is located in Luxembourg.

The functions of the Accounts Chamber have the following areas:

1.examination of the income and expenditure reports of the European Union and all its institutions and bodies having access to European Union funds;

2.quality control of financial management;

.drawing up a report on its work after the end of each financial year, as well as submitting opinions or comments on individual issues to the European Parliament and the Council;

.assistance to the European Parliament in monitoring the execution of the European Union budget.

In order to fulfill the functions assigned to the Court of Accounts, auditors carry out on-site inspections to other EU institutions, EU states or other states receiving financial assistance from the EU. However, the Accounts Chamber has no real powers. If auditors find violations, they inform the European Anti-Corruption Office about them.

The Court of Auditors consists of 28 representatives (one from each Member State) who have performed or are performing relevant external control functions in their countries or have special qualifications to occupy this position. They are appointed by the Council by unanimous vote for a six-year term and are completely independent in the performance of their duties. The Chairman of the Accounting Chamber is elected from among its members for a three-year period with the right to renew the mandate.

The Court of Auditors has broad powers to verify the legality and regularity of the income and expenditure of the European Union.

In addition to the annual report, it publishes 15 special reports on important issues such as the distribution of the agricultural guarantee fund or food aid to developing countries.

European Investment Bank. The European Investment Bank is a public financial institution of the European Union for financing the development of backward European regions in the form of long-term loans. Created in 1958 with the aim of providing loans for the construction and reconstruction of facilities that are of interest to EU countries. The authorized capital is formed from contributions from participating countries and amounts to 232.393 billion euros.

The EIB is a legal entity. Its members are the member states of the Community. The EIB's mission is to promote “the constant and balanced development of the common market in the interests of the Community.” To achieve this goal, it uses both the capital market resources to which it has access and its own resources. The Bank provides loans and guarantees for the implementation of such projects:

· on the development of underdeveloped regions;

· aimed at modernizing or transforming enterprises or developing new activities that contributed to progress in creating a common market;

· which constitute a common interest for several Member States, which, due to their scope or nature, cannot be completely financially separate Member States.

By issuing bond loans on the international money market and on the national money markets of the European Union countries, the bank's borrowed funds are formed. Regular loans are provided for profitable projects, and preferential loans for low-profit ones. Up to 70% comes from loans for regional development of less developed areas. The total amount of loans provided is over 47 billion euros. Bank loans cover part of the project cost, supplementing the borrower's own capital (usually less than 50%).

The areas where loans are used are primarily energy, transport and telecommunications. The European Investment Bank also provides concessional loans using EU funds as a technical manager. Bank loans are provided in several currencies. The interest rate on “mixed” loans is determined on the basis of the weighted average cost of funds raised in these currencies on international or national capital markets.

The governing bodies of the European Investment Bank are the Board of Governors, the Directorate and the Management Board. The Governing Council includes the finance ministers of EU countries. It determines the general credit policy, reviews and approves annual balance sheets, and makes changes to the authorized capital. The Directorate makes decisions on providing loans and guarantees when raising funds and setting interest rates. Operational management is carried out by the president and his five deputies. The seat of the European Investment Bank is the European Quarter of Luxembourg.

Bureau of Official Publications . Since 1969, Euroffice, also called EUR-OP, the official editor of the European Union institutions, is based in Luxembourg. The Office publishes every year about 9,000 securities and 60 periodicals, most in nine Community languages. The Official Gazette, including three editions published every day in nine languages, can be signed in printed form or in microfilm form. The magazine publishes more than 35,000 pages per year.

Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat).

The European Statistical System (ESS) was created at the earliest stages of the formation of the European Community with the aim of providing comparable statistical information at EU level for the purposes of planning and implementing Community policies. The ESS consists of Eurostat (Statistics Office of the European Community) and national statistical services, ministries and departments, and central banks that collect official statistics in EU member states, Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein. EU Member States collect data and produce statistics for national and pan-European purposes. The ESS operates as a network in which Eurostat plays a key role in the harmonization of statistics in cooperation with member states. The activities of the ESS are mainly concentrated on areas of strategic interest of the Community, but with the enlargement of the EU, harmonization extends to almost all statistical areas. The ESS coordinates its work with international organizations such as the OECD, the UN, the IMF and the World Bank.

The key role of Eurostat, founded in 1953, is to provide the European Commission and other European institutions with statistical data for the definition, implementation and analysis of Community policies.

Eurostat's work is guided by three main pieces of legislation that provide European Community statistics with a sound legislative basis. These acts provide a long-term basis for the new statistical challenges associated with European integration. In addition, they guarantee the autonomy of Eurostat, ensuring the principles of impartiality, scientific independence and statistical confidentiality, which are the basis for statistical work in a democratic society. These are the EU Statistics Act, the EU Council Regulation on Eurostat and the Amsterdam Agreement, according to which “the production of EU statistics should comply with the principles of impartiality, reliability, objectivity, scientific independence, cost-effectiveness and statistical confidentiality, and should not lead to unnecessary burden on economic operators."

These acts, as well as the “Code of Practice for European Statistics” are key for EU statistics, however, at the methodology level, more detailed regulatory documents are used that relate to all areas of statistics and are collected in the collection of the EU legislative framework aquis communautaire.

Eurostat is one of the largest players in the international statistical field. With its highly professional staff, Eurostat participates in the development of major international recommendations in the field of statistics. Eurostat statistics are disseminated through an interactive website, as well as in publications and express bulletins.

Eurostat is an agency of the European Commission. Its task is to collect and process statistical data of the member states of the European Union and the EU's foreign trade with its main commercial partners.

From paper publications, electronic devices such as floppy disks, magnetic tapes and data banks (for example Comtext), the information provided is constantly updated on the following topics: general information, economics and finance, population and social conditions, energy industry, agriculture and forestry, fisheries , trade, services and transport.

Luxembourg plays a huge role in the European Union. The Principality is home to a large number of EU institutions.

Thanks to the active encouragement of investment and innovation by the government, Luxembourg is recognized as the most attractive for foreign investors.

It is also worth noting that a large number of officials from European Union countries work in Luxembourg.

2.2 International relations of Luxembourg with the countries of the European Union

The European Union is the practical implementation of the idea of European integration. The idea of European integration has a long history. Since ancient times, Europe has made attempts to unite and create something single. In ancient times, Julius Caesar made such an attempt and was unsuccessful. In the Middle Ages, Charlemagne tried to unite the European continent. It didn't work out. In modern times, Napoleon decided to try his luck. But he was a complete failure. In the twentieth century, A. Hitler set himself the goal of not only the conquest of all of Europe, but also the establishment of world order. The attempt ended in complete failure.

The failure of all previous attempts to unite Europe can be explained by only one thing, namely: all attempts at unification were based on violence, i.e. on conquests. And this path always leads to failure.

However, the idea of European unification or integration lived and developed, increasingly influencing the minds of Europeans. It began to materialize more and more when the masses began to support it, especially when wars began to break out in Europe more and more often, taking on ever more grandiose proportions. In the first half of the 19th century. At the World Peace Congress, convened on the initiative of the outstanding French writer Victor Hugo, the idea of creating the United States of Europe (USE) was put forward.

The idea of the United States of Europe was liked by everyone, since it expressed the desire and opinion of the European peoples. Neither sovereigns, nor politicians, nor political parties could brush aside this obsession, which became the idea of creating the United States of Europe. All of them were forced to determine their attitude to this idea. True, it should be noted that interest in it either subsided or flared up with renewed vigor on the eve of or during military conflicts. At the height of the First World War, the idea of SHE, having already been transformed into a slogan, became the subject of general discussion in all countries of Europe and beyond. After the end of the First World War, the first attempts were made to put it into practice. But they all ended unsuccessfully, most likely due to the fact that fascist Germany, as was said, having unleashed the Second World War, tried to unite Europe by military means.

After the Second World War, the idea of European integration became increasingly relevant. This can be judged from the speech of W. Churchill, in which he called for the unification of Europe, albeit with a specific goal, namely: to prevent the spread of communism.

May 1950 R. Schumann, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of France, on behalf of the government of his country published a declaration, which was also called the “Declaration of May 9, 1950”, in which he openly outlined the idea of uniting the leading industries of Germany and France into a coal association and steel. The French government approached the German government with this idea. The government of K. Adenauer supported this idea. She was soon supported by the governments of Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg. Thus, six European states, namely Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg, created the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

May 9, 1950 was declared “Europe Day”, and from this date the countdown officially begins for European integration. And the term “integration” is actively included in political and scientific circulation.

The concept of “integration” means the unification of the parts participating in the integration process into a single whole while maintaining their independence. But at the same time, when participating in integration, countries must delegate part of their sovereignty in favor of supranational institutions, that is, issues of foreign policy, defense and security.

In April 1951, in Paris, the heads of state and government of six countries signed a treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, or ECSC. The treaty aimed to ensure the free movement of goods, capital, services and persons within the borders of the six countries that signed the treaty. The Treaty established the governing institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community, namely the highest body, that is, the Meeting of Heads of State and Government of the countries that signed the Treaty establishing the ECSC, then the European Parliament, the Council of Ministers, the Commission and the Court, as well as some Councils, such as for example, the Economic and Social Council.

It should be noted that the founders of the ECSC paid special attention to the need to respect state sovereignty, that is, so that ECSC decisions do not affect state sovereignty, the most sensitive issue in the process of European integration. Therefore, the heads of state agreed that when making decisions on the most important issues, not a simple majority, but a so-called qualified majority, i.e., will be taken into account. such that decisions on major issues affecting state sovereignty will be made by a two-thirds vote of the ECSC member countries.

It should also be noted that the Association was built on the principles of complete voluntariness of the countries that signed the treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. The association began to function a little later, but already in 1955-1956. the association showed its effectiveness, and already in the mid-50s. a new idea emerged, namely: could it be possible to extend the principles of the European Coal and Steel Community to the entire economy of the six countries that are members of the ECSC. And so, at the beginning of 1957, the heads of state and government of six of these countries, namely France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, agreed to meet in the city of Rome and sign an agreement, which was called the Treaty of Rome. This act took place on March 25, 1957.

The Treaty of Rome is large, it covers all areas, all areas of the economy of the six countries, namely the economic area, the currency area, the trade area, social life, taxation issues, etc. The Treaty of Rome began to function on January 1, 1958. It must be said that those who signed the Treaty of Rome had in mind that these six countries would go through three stages in their activities on the path to European integration, namely: trade, economic and the last and most difficult is the political stage.

An important place on the path of European integration is occupied by the so-called Maastricht Treaty, named after the small Dutch village where the heads of state and government of the fifteen member states of the European Economic Community signed this treaty. From now on, the European Economic Community will transform into the European Union, this is a new stage on the path of European integration. The main provisions of the Paris and Rome Treaties establishing the European Economic Community and Euratom were retained, but some clarifications were made, some changes were made to the distribution of votes in the European Parliament depending on the population of the countries that are members of the European Union. Then they talked about clarifying the qualified majority when making major decisions affecting state sovereignty, expanding the powers of the Council of Ministers, etc.

In addition, the Maastricht Treaty indicates the place of the Western European Union, which will be discussed a little later, somewhat separately. The Maastricht Treaty established a single European currency, the euro, it established an institution for coordinating the common foreign and security policies of the member countries of the European Union, it established a common social policy for the member countries of the European Community, it established institutions of economic and monetary order, it established monetary institutions.

The Maastricht Treaty also established the procedure for admitting new members to the European Union, producing a document called Agenda 2000. Thus, the Maastricht Treaty took a big step towards European integration.

An important place on the path of European integration and in the life of the European Union has the Treaty of Amsterdam, signed by the heads of state and government of the member countries of the European Community in October 1997, and especially the summit of the European Union countries, held in December 2000 in Nice (France) . At the summit in Nice, the most important documents were adopted that sum up the fifty-year stage of European integration. At the summit in Nice, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union was adopted - the most important document that should form the basis of the future European constitution; the decision to create a European army of initially sixty thousand men; decision on the admission of new members to the European Union in 2003-2005; the priority was established for the admission of new members, granting them a certain number of votes depending on the population of these countries wishing to join the European Union and the agreement defining the further path of development of the European Union.

An important instrument of European integration is the common foreign and security policy. The point is that the member states of the European Union, if they want to build a united Europe or, in other words, create a single European state, must have a common foreign policy doctrine and a common foreign policy course. However, foreign policy is an essential element of state sovereignty. Therefore, member states of the European Union who want to build a united Europe must know to what extent to give up part of their state sovereignty in the field of foreign policy.

The issue of coordinating the foreign policy course of the EU member states was raised at the Rome meeting of the heads of state and government of the countries of the European Economic Community and was reflected in the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Throughout the entire period of the EEC’s activity, its members coordinated their foreign policy course. This was the case before the Maastricht Conference of Heads of State and Government of the European Community. At this conference, heads of state and government took a big step forward by agreeing to pursue a common foreign and security policy for the European Union. The Maastricht Treaty includes a special article on common foreign and security policy. The treaty established the post of chief coordinator of the common foreign and security policy. Since October 1999, this post has been occupied by the Spanish diplomat J. Solana. Meanwhile, in the structure of the European Union Commission there is a commissioner who deals with foreign policy, and there are commissioners who deal with certain issues of foreign policy in certain regions of the world. From all this we can conclude that the post of chief coordinator of the common foreign and security policy is becoming one of the leading ones in the European Union, its powers were defined by the Maastricht Treaty, and practice expands and complements these powers.

It should be emphasized once again that the implementation of a common foreign and security policy of the European Union is a big step forward on the path of European integration towards a united Europe.

It should be noted that in the past, some member states of the European Union were colonial powers that owned significant territories in Africa, Asia, the Pacific and the Caribbean. These include the UK, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Holland. It would be a mistake to think that after colonial territories gained their independence, their former owners lost them forever. Not at all. Shortly after the formation of the EEC, 18 African states, formerly under the domination of France and Belgium, signed the so-called Yaounde Convention with the EEC in July 1963 in the city of Yaounde (Cameroon), which provided them with benefits for traditional export goods from these countries on the markets of the countries EES.

In 1969, 43 countries in Africa, the Pacific, Asia and the Caribbean had already joined the Yaoundé Convention. In 1975, the Yaounde Convention was replaced by the Lomé Convention (Togo), which granted countries in Africa, the Asia-Pacific region and the Caribbean significant benefits in European Union markets, meaning 36 types of products from these regions enjoyed benefits in EU markets. In 1989, 69 countries in Africa, the Asia-Pacific region and the Caribbean had already joined the Lomé Convention.

The Yaounde and Lomé Conventions established the institution of associate members of the European Union. This means that goods from countries in Africa, the Pacific, Asia and the Caribbean, as associate members of the EU, enjoyed benefits in the markets of the European Union, and products from EU countries enjoyed the same benefits in the markets of associate members of the European Union. In addition, the European Union provides free economic and financial assistance to its associate members. And the fact that the number of countries that are associate members of the European Union increased from 18 in 1963 to 69 in 1988 indicates that it is economically beneficial for countries in Africa, the Pacific, Asia and the Caribbean to have regular consumers of their traditional goods export. This statement equally applies to the member countries of the European Union.

Thus, the assertion of Marxist ideologues, which was current in the past, that cooperation between the European Union and the countries of Africa, Asia, the Pacific and the Caribbean is cooperation between the rider and the horse, has no basis in reality.

One of the important and fruitful forms of cooperation between the European Union and countries outside of it is the establishment of the institution of partnership, that is, when these countries become trading partners of the European Union. Both the Treaty of Rome and the Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union, are imbued with the idea of partnership. Many countries around the world have become trading partners of the European Union, among them the Republic of Kazakhstan, which signed the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with the European Union in 1995.

In 1989, the European Union created the TACIS program, which means the provision of technical assistance from the European Union to the Soviet Union, which began in the late 80s. reconstruction company. After the collapse of the USSR, this program was extended to provide technical assistance to the Newly Independent States in the territory of the former USSR.

Currently, the European Union, in the process of integration, has entered a new stage of its development, namely the formation of the political unification of Europe, the admission of new states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Baltic countries.

The European Union is expanding. Europe is integrating. In this regard, issues of state sovereignty, procedures for making major decisions and the future political form of an integrated Europe become acute.

In this regard, the discussion started in the spring and summer of 2000 by German Foreign Minister J. Fischer and French President J. Chirac on the issue of the political form of a united Europe becomes interesting. J. Fischer supported the old idea of creating a United States of Europe. Many people disagree with him. Discussions are ongoing.

The official founding date of the European Union is February 7, 1992, the date of signing of the Maastricht Treaty. It came into force on November 1, 1993. On January 1, 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the European Union; May 1, 2004 - Hungary, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Estonia; January 1, 2007 - Bulgaria, Romania. The European Union is a union of independent states that have joined forces to create a single space of freedom, security and justice, sustainable development, economic and social progress for their citizens. In 1992, it was decided to create an Economic Monetary Union (EMU) within the EU and introduce a single European currency unit, which should be administered by the European Central Bank. The single European currency, the euro, became a reality on January 1, 2002, when euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the 15 EU countries.

Economic and political integration between the countries of the European Union means that these countries must make common decisions on various issues. Thus, EU countries have developed common policies in a very wide range of sectors from agriculture to culture, from consumer rights to competition conditions, from environmental protection and energy use to transport and trade. Today, the EU continues an active policy of integration both within the Union and in the foreign policy arena.

Luxembourg has long been a prominent proponent of European political and economic integration. In an effort to herald European integration, Luxembourg and Belgium formed the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) in 1921, creating an interconvertible currency and a common customs regime. Luxembourg is a member of the Benelux Economic Union and was one of the founding countries of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in the Schengen group, which aims to free the movement of citizens between EU member states. At the same time, Luxembourgers have consistently recognized that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic, transatlantic relationship and a traditionally pro-NATO, pro-American foreign policy.

Luxembourg is one of the financial centers of Europe, and in 1995 there were representative offices of 220 foreign banks, which were attracted by the most favorable banking laws in the EU adopted in the late 1970s, guaranteeing the secrecy of deposits. Since entering the eurozone, the euro has been circulating in Luxembourg (previously, the Luxembourg franc and the Belgian franc were in circulation, issued by the Luxembourg Monetary Institute, which patronizes the financial sector). The central bank is the National Bank of Belgium. In the 1996 budget, revenues amounted to 159 billion Luxembourg francs, and expenses - 167.2 billion. Indirect taxes accounted for 42% of all revenues, and direct taxes - 48%. Total tax revenues amounted to 45% of GDP - the highest figure for EU countries.

Most industrial products are exported, with 1/3 of them being metals and finished products. Luxembourg fully imports energy resources for industry - coal and oil; automobiles, textiles, cotton, food and agricultural machinery are also imported. Until the mid-1970s, the balance of trade was generally positive, with export receipts exceeding import costs, but declines in steel production changed the balance significantly. The trade balance is reduced due to large incomes of the financial sector. Luxembourg's main foreign trade partners are EU countries. In 2008, Luxembourg was recognized as the richest country in the EU

Luxembourg exceeded European Union targets for international aid to developing countries last year, new analysis shows, bucking an austerity trend that has seen Europe fail to meet its long-standing commitments to the world's poorest countries.

The tiny country spent the least amount of the EU's top donor countries, $413.4 million (€316.2 million) and just 0.48% of total EU development aid in 2011.

European leaders have traditionally viewed foreign aid as an extension of their "power", agreeing to provide annual development aid equivalent to 0.7% of domestic national income by 2015.

The diversity of the European Union is expressed in its regions.

The Union must, of course, support this diversity, but it must also encourage greater and greater integration of the regions.

Due to its size, Luxembourg is only one region.
In supporting community development projects, the European Union seeks to help areas that are less developed or affected by the economic crisis. There are three structural funds: the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Fund for European Guarantee and Guarantee of Agriculture, under "orientation" (FEOGA), which are the main instruments of this policy.
In the Grand Duchy, assistance from the fund is assigned to two regions: the Northern - focused on agriculture and the Southern - affected by restructuring.

However, many other incentive programs cover the entire country.

In January 1994, the European Commission fixed for the period 1994-1996 an indicative distribution of structural funds intended for industrial areas in decline. For Luxembourg, 7 million ECU (approximately 280 million LUF) were attributed mainly to the canton of Esch-sur-Alzette and, in the canton of Capellen, in the areas of Bascharage, Cl émency, Dippach, Garnich and Marner.

With 6 million CZK (240 million LUF), European Union
will help Luxembourg to develop agriculture. During the period 1994-1999, funds were doubled compared to the period 1989-1993.
The plan covered the entire North (about 30,000 inhabitants) with districts
Clairvaux, Vianden and Wiltz, as well as in parts of district R édange.
The European Commission is involved in half of various development projects, such as modernizing the structure of agriculture, developing local products, developing agricultural technologies for environmental protection, rural development, stimulating tourism, etc.

Luxembourg's foreign policy is distinguished by a pragmatic, balanced position, which stands out favorably against the pan-European background with a multilateral approach to solving global problems with an emphasis on the UN system. The main task of Luxembourg in the foreign policy arena remains the deepening of European integration, stimulating the development of consensus approaches of the European Union to issues of European construction and current problems of international relations, and overcoming the “insufficient competitiveness” of the European economy.

The Luxembourg government takes an active position on issues of arms reduction, nuclear disarmament and strengthening the non-proliferation regime, firmly advocating increased efforts in these areas. The constant of Luxembourg's foreign policy remains the course towards denuclearization of the entire region of the Near and Middle East. Luxembourg consistently advocates maintaining the international military presence in Afghanistan and an early end to the construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank.

The VGL is a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. (In this regard, during the reporting period, Luxembourg will chair the UN Security Council Sanctions Committee on the DPRK and the Working Group on Children in Armed Conflict). Luxembourg's commitment to the goals and principles of the UN is evidenced not only by the fulfillment of financial obligations in accordance with the UN Charter, but also by regular voluntary contributions to its funds and programs, participation in peacekeeping missions, and an active policy of development assistance. Currently, Luxembourg's contribution to the regular and peacekeeping budgets ranks 54th in absolute terms (total contributions in 2012: US$2,326,708), and per capita, one of the first in the world .

In January 2013 - Luxembourg underwent the universal periodic review procedure (15th session) of the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva, Switzerland.

Bilaterally, Luxembourg seeks to expand its economic ties with Asian states and newly industrialized countries.

Here they consistently advocate increasing interaction along the EU-US-Russia vector, including within the framework of strengthening pan-European security.

Participation in OPM abroad. 37 Luxembourgers are participating in peacekeeping operations abroad through the EU, UN and NATO, of which 23 are in Kosovo, 9 in Afghanistan, 2 in Lebanon, 2 in Chad, 2 in Mali, 1 in the DRC, 1 in BiH.

Aid to developing countries amounts to 1.04% of the country's GDP (3rd place in the world after Sweden and Norway). Its preferred recipients are Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Mali, Namibia, Niger, Senegal, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Laos and Vietnam.

Diplomatic relations with Russia were established in 1891, with the USSR on August 26, 1935. On May 24, 2007, the first ever visit of the President of Russia to the VGL took place.

There are 225 Russian citizens permanently residing in the consular district of the Embassy in Luxembourg.

Benelux is the abbreviated name for the customs and economic union of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, which is also acquiring the character of a military-political union. The formation of the Benelux began with a currency agreement (October 21, 1943) and a customs convention (September 5, 1944; entered into force in January 1948) of the three named states. On February 3, 1958, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg concluded an agreement in The Hague establishing an economic union, which entered into force on November 1, 1960, after its ratification by the parliaments of the three countries.

The agreement provides for the creation of a single market for its participants, the free movement of persons, goods, capital and services between the three countries, the coordination of their economic, financial and social policies, the participation of the participating countries as a single whole in the field of foreign economic relations; The contract was concluded for 50 years and can be extended for every subsequent 10 years. The Benelux states hold consultations on major international and military issues.

Thus, we can conclude that Luxembourg is one of the financial centers of Europe.

Luxembourg is a prominent supporter of European political and economic integration. In an effort to herald European integration, Luxembourg and Belgium formed the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) in 1921, creating an interconvertible currency and a common customs regime. Luxembourg is a member of the Benelux Economic Union and was one of the founding countries of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in the Schengen group, which aims to free the movement of citizens between EU member states.

Luxembourg's foreign trade is linked to Belgium's foreign trade, and the National Bank of Belgium handles Luxembourg's international operations.

By all indicators, Luxembourg is the “heart of the European Union”.

Conclusion

The diversity of the European Union is expressed in its regions. The Union must, of course, preserve this diversity, but it must also promote the integration of an increasingly narrow field. Having studied this topic and scientific works on it, we can come to the conclusion that Luxembourg plays a big role among the EU countries and in the European Union as a whole. Taking an active role in economic development, in the political sphere. And it should also be noted that Luxembourg stood at the origins of the formation of the European Union.

Luxembourg is a small landlocked state in Western Europe, headed by the Grand Duke. Luxembourg is not only an economic power, it also has great historical and strategic importance. On its territory there are numerous ancient fortresses and castles, including an ancient Roman fortress and a French count's castle. During the Spanish era, Luxembourg was an important state that had a great influence on the Western Hemisphere.

Thus, we draw conclusions. Luxembourg's economy is highly dependent on the external market. Luxembourg is a highly industrialized state: almost half of the economically active population is employed in industry and transport, while only about 7% is employed in agriculture. Luxembourg ranks 22nd in the world in terms of iron and steel smelting. Since January 1, 2002, the currency of Luxembourg is the Euro (EURO).

Luxembourg's foreign trade is linked to Belgium's foreign trade, and the National Bank of Belgium handles Luxembourg's international operations. Most industrial products are exported, with 1/3 of them being metals and finished products. Luxembourg fully imports energy resources for industry - coal and oil; automobiles, textiles, cotton, food and agricultural machinery are also imported. Luxembourg's main foreign trade partners are EU countries. The main industries are banking, steel, metallurgy, food processing, chemicals, engineering, tires, glass and aluminum. Agricultural products include barley, oats, potatoes, wheat, fruits and wine grapes. Processed steel products, chemicals, rubber products, glass, aluminum, other industrial products are export products to countries such as Germany 33%, France 20%, Belgium 12%, UK 6%, USA 5%, Netherlands 4%. Minerals, metals, food, quality consumer goods - imported goods from countries such as Belgium 36%, Germany 27%, France 12%, Netherlands 5%, USA 4%.

Agriculture, although carried out intensively, occupies a secondary place in the economy. It only meets half of the population's food needs. In recent years, the role of agriculture has continued to decline. The number of people employed in it is decreasing, and the area under cultivation is shrinking.

Luxembourg has a dense network of roads with a length of about 5 thousand km, which is almost 2 km of highways per 1 sq. km. km of territory. The Luxembourg real estate market is one of the most conservative in Europe.

Thus, over time, due to the improvement of the global economic situation and the strengthening of European integration processes, Luxembourg begins to achieve stable positions of economic growth, gradually establishing industrial and agricultural production sectors, and occupies one of the main places in the financial industry.

Population - 468.6 thousand people. in 2005, its average annual increase in 1990-2003. amounted to 1.4%. The official languages are German and French. Believers are mainly Catholics. Life expectancy (2000) - 77 years. Level and system of education. Compulsory education is 12 years, the proportion of literate people among the adult population is 99%.

Government structure: constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the Grand Duke. Legislative body - Chamber of Deputies (60 seats). Capital - Luxembourg

But the quality of life and work of European employees also depends on other decisive factors, such as the provision of a modern and high-performance European School, the efficiency of transport links to workplaces as well as favorable living conditions for the spouses of statutory agents.

Currently, Luxembourg is one of the most expensive cities in Europe, comparable in level and quality of life only to the populated areas of Switzerland. Despite this, Luxembourg is aimed at the stable development of the country and continues to occupy a central place in the European Union.

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Note for the traveler - details about the country, resorts and hotels, reviews from tourists

Luxembourg

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is one of the smallest states in Europe. There are almost no large cities in this country, but, nevertheless, this state has a long interesting history and a huge number of attractions. We can say that Luxembourg is Europe in miniature. It has everything that we admire when visiting other Western countries: luxurious nature - mountains, forests and rivers; medieval streets of ancient cities, magnificent palaces, beautiful cozy parks, museums displaying numerous works of art.

Geographical position

The state of Luxembourg is located on a hilly plain, and partly on the northern slope of the Ardennes mountain range. It covers an area of just under 2,700 square meters and is located in the very center of Western Europe. Luxembourg borders Germany to the north and east, Belgium to the west, and France to the south.

History of Luxembourg

The first traces of the presence of ancient people on the territory of this state date back to the Paleolithic. Based on the remains of ancient people and their household items found here, scientists have established that people lived here more than 35 centuries ago. In more recent times, the Gauls and Franks lived in the lands where Luxembourg is now located. In the 7th century, Saint Willibrord founded a Benedictine monastery here and converted the local residents to Christianity.

In the Middle Ages, in 963, Luxembourg gained its independence, and in the mid-14th century it became a duchy. True, the powerful powers surrounding Luxembourg did not take too much into account the independence of the tiny state, and already in the 15th - 18th centuries its territory several times passed from the hands of the Habsburg dynasty, ruling in Spain and Austria, to the French kingdom. Only after the fall of Napoleon, in 1815, Luxembourg was freed from French rule and... became part of the Netherlands. He also managed to visit both the German Confederation and part of Belgium. Only in 1866 did this state gain its sovereignty. The Treaty on the Status of Luxembourg was signed in 1867 by leading European countries - Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France. The newly formed state declared its eternal neutrality, but this did not prevent Germany from capturing Luxembourg, both in the First World War and in the Second. Immediately after the liberation by Allied forces in 1944, Luxembourg entered into an alliance with Belgium and the Netherlands, which was called Benelux, deciding to defend its economic interests together with nearby countries.

Currently, Luxembourg is a constitutional monarchy with a Grand Duke at its head.

Official languages, currencies and religion

In total, Luxembourg has less than half a million inhabitants, 20% of whom are foreigners. The official languages are Luxembourgish, which belongs to the Germanic languages, as well as German and French. Many of the country's residents speak English. The currency of Luxembourg, like the entire united Europe, is the euro. You can exchange or buy them at banks, as well as at exchange offices at railway stations and airports. It should be borne in mind that banks are closed on Sunday, and on Saturday they are open only in the capital. In addition to cash, even in the most remote corners of Luxembourg, tourist checks and credit cards are accepted for payment. The vast majority of Luxembourgers (97%) are Catholics, but there are also Protestants, Muslims and Jews.

Climate and weather in Luxembourg

The climate in this state is quite pleasant, very mild and temperate, varying from Atlantic to continental. It is not hot in Luxembourg in summer, and not cold in winter. The temperature in January is 0 C, and in July +17 C. Precipitation falls mainly in the winter months. The best time to visit Luxembourg is from early May to mid-October.

Luxembourg visa and customs rules

Entry into Luxembourg occurs with Schengen visas, which are issued according to general rules. Documents - a foreign passport, completed forms, photographs, health insurance, a certificate from the place of work, where the salary must be indicated. Students or pupils should also provide a copy of their student ID and certificate from their place of study.

When traveling with children, a copy of the birth certificate is required. For a child over 6 years old who is included in the parents’ passport, a photograph of the child is also required. Children over 14 years of age require their own passport.

Documents are reviewed within one to two weeks. A short-term visa gives the right to stay in Luxembourg for no more than 90 days within 6 months.

When entering the country, border guards may require you to present financial means, an invitation for which you can visit the country or make a hotel reservation. Otherwise, they may refuse entry. When entering Luxembourg, there are no restrictions on the import or export of any currency. Adults are allowed to import 200 cigarettes, 1 liter without duty. alcohol-containing drinks with a strength of more than 22%, or 2 liters of such drinks with a strength of less than 22%, as well as 250 ml of eau de toilette or 50 ml of perfume. It is prohibited to bring drugs into the country. Since 2009, meat or dairy products, with the exception of baby food, cannot be imported into Luxembourg, as well as into other EU countries. Without special permission, the export of computer equipment, art and antiques, as well as weapons from Luxembourg is prohibited.

How to get to Luxembourg

Unfortunately, there are no direct flights from our country to Luxembourg, so if you want to visit this country, take a connecting flight. Such flights are offered by some European companies. In addition, from almost all major airports in Western Europe - Frankfurt, Brussels, Paris, Cologne - you can get to Luxembourg by train. This journey will only take a few hours. There are also no direct trains or bus services connecting our countries. When traveling by train, it is best to change trains in the Belgian city of Liege. However, keep in mind that this option will cost you more than traveling by plane.

A bus trip will cost a little less - in this case, in Germany you should change to a bus heading to Luxembourg.

Official holidays

Most holidays in Luxembourg coincide with holiday dates in other countries of Catholic Europe. This is the New Year - January 1, May 1 - Labor Day, moving religious holidays - Easter, celebrated in March or April, the Ascension of the Lord, which is celebrated 40 days after Easter and Spiritual Day, celebrated 50 days after it. In addition, a national holiday is celebrated on June 23 - the Birthday of the Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is celebrated on August 15, All Saints Day is November 1, Christmas is solemnly celebrated on December 25, and the next day, December 26, St. Stephen's Day is celebrated.

These days, almost all institutions, shops and museums in Luxembourg are closed. It should also be taken into account that if an official holiday according to the calendar falls on Saturday or Sunday, then it moves to the next Monday, which is considered a non-working Monday.

Attractions

The area of Luxembourg is so small that you can travel around it by car in just a few hours. However, think about it, is it worth doing? Luxembourgers love their country very much and, not without reason, consider it one of the most picturesque European countries. Therefore, they prefer to travel around their state on foot or by bicycle. The entire territory of Luxembourg - its forests and mountains, is covered by a network of hiking trails. And, probably, this is right, because this is how you can enjoy clean air, fabulous landscapes and listen to birdsong. There are many walking and cycling routes around Luxembourg. You can go along them with a guide who will take you to the most interesting places. Or you can buy a map (they are sold everywhere in this country), rent a bicycle and go on an independent journey.

And believe me, it will be extremely interesting, because in this ancient state there are many attractions - both for history buffs and for connoisseurs of beautiful landscapes. Of course, first of all, the capital of the state, also called Luxembourg, deserves attention. The city consists of two parts. You should definitely explore this ancient city, especially its center and the Grand Duke's Palace. And, of course, you cannot pass by the romantic Adolf Bridge and the gloomy Bocca casemates, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The newest city has many skyscrapers. It is here that the headquarters of many European banks and other official institutions are located.

Many attractions are located in the vicinity of Luxembourg. There you can also see the ancient Speymüllen mill, which now houses an art workshop, ancient fortresses, the vineyards of Remich, Grueveldange, etc.

But besides the capital, there are other cities in this state. And although they are small in size, each of them has its own attractions. In the town of Henene there is a wine museum. Victor Hugo lived for some time in the unusually beautiful town of Viandel, located in the valley of the Ur River. Now in this city you can visit the museum of the great French writer and see his personal belongings. The thermal springs of Luxembourg, on which the resort of Mondorf-les-Bains is built, are also famous. The city of Echternach is considered a famous tourist center, which has almost completely preserved its medieval buildings, winding streets and ancient Gothic buildings. It is worth coming to this city to attend a folk holiday or festival that takes place here almost continuously. Very close to Echternach there is an area that is commonly called “little Switzerland”, so picturesque cliffs covered with forest, gorges and stone pillars are reminiscent of the landscapes of the Swiss Confederation. The main natural attraction located here is the Wolf's Mouth Canyon.

Not far from the city of Berdorf there is a rock with a huge opening "Roman cave", the beautiful and winding narrow Hals gorge, and the Müllertal area is famous for the beauty of its streams flowing through green valleys and the waterfalls with which they fall from the hills. These landscapes give even more romantic charm numerous ruins of medieval castles.

And if you get to the Moselle River valley, an amazing “wine road” will open up for you - because in this ancient wine-growing region there are many wine cellars and small restaurants where you can taste young Moselle wines.

Children in Luxembourg can enjoy the magnificent “Park of Miracles”, which is located in Betemburg; adults can learn to play golf, as this country has several golf clubs with excellent courses for this game. You can also try your hand at hang gliding. The center of this extreme sport is located on a plateau near the city of Useldang. But, probably, it is much calmer to go boating or swim in the purest picturesque Luxembourg rivers - the Ur, Velha, and Sure.

And don't forget about local restaurants. Culinary specialists in Luxembourg claim that their cuisine has absorbed the traditions of neighboring countries - France and Germany. At the same time, they adopted the methods of preparing and recipes for gourmet food from the French, and the size of the served portions from the Germans.

You probably already understand that this country, despite its miniature size, deserves the attention of even the most sophisticated tourists. You need to come to this “largest” state of all the “small” countries in Europe to see with your own eyes all the natural and man-made beauties of Luxembourg.

Luxembourg country relief. Population of Luxembourg: description, composition, employment and numbers. Foreign trade of Luxembourg

Climate

Geography

Flora and fauna

Attractions

Banks and currency

Useful information for tourists

Luxembourg

Geographical position

History of Luxembourg

Official languages, currencies and religion

Climate and weather in Luxembourg

Luxembourg visa and customs rules

How to get to Luxembourg

Official holidays

Attractions

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