Ancient Greek names of cities. Ancient and modern Greek cities. Life in policies

Parthenon History of Greece Prehistoric Greece (before the XXX century BC) ... Wikipedia

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Amphora ... Wikipedia

Astronomy Ancient Greece astronomical knowledge and views of those people who wrote in ancient Greek, regardless of the geographical region: Hellas itself, the Hellenized monarchies of the East, Rome or early Byzantium. Covers... ...Wikipedia

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Plato Ancient Greek philosophy philosophy, one of the two largest branches of ancient philosophy, which arose in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. e. and existed until the very end of antiquity. Towards Ancient Greek Philosophy on Ideas, Methods and... ... Wikipedia

Homoerotic scene. Painting on a black-figure vessel, c. 540 BC In science, repeatedly ... Wikipedia

Red-figured pelica of the vase painter Polygnotus. A young man settles accounts with a heterosexual woman. OK. 430 BC uh... Wikipedia

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- (Δωρις) 1) a small (about 200 km) mountainous region in the center of central Greece, between Eta and Parnassus, bordering Aetolia, Phocis and both Locris and irrigated by the upper course of the Cephisus (now Mavroneri) and its tributary Pindus. Initially... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Books

• Legends and myths of Ancient Greece: gods, Kun Nikolai Albertovich. Nikolai Albertovich Kun (1877-1940) - Russian historian, writer. On his mother’s side he came from an old noble family, his father’s family (the surname Kuhn is German) were German and...
• Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. Argonauts, Nikolai Albertovich Kun. Nikolai Albertovich Kun (1877-1940) - Russian historian, writer. On his mother’s side he came from an old noble family, his father’s family had German and Anglo-Scottish roots (surname...

Athens

Athens is the capital of the Greek state, one of the oldest cities in the world, which received its name from the goddess of knowledge and wisdom. For the entire civilized world, this city is a symbol personifying freedom, democracy and art. In the center of the city there is the “pearl” of Greece - the Acropolis with its architectural masterpiece the Parthenon and Mount Lykabettos with the picturesque church of St. George. The Temple of the Virgin Athena, the patroness of the city, majestically rises above the city and is clearly visible from any point. The Theater of Dionysus, located on the southern slope of the Acropolis, was part of the Sanctuary of Dionysus, now partially restored, and the site of the Athens Festival. Areopagus, a low hill northwest of the Acropolis, the leveled area on top of which served as the meeting place for the Council of Elders, the highest judicial body of the ancient Athenian state. No less important monuments of Athens are Keramikos, where the ashes of famous Athenians rest. Diogenes' Lantern, Tower of the Winds, Hadrian's Arch - this is a small list of what you can see in Athens. The surrounding area of ​​the most ancient capital of Europe is also rich in attractions. The burial mound called Marathon is home to a museum in honor of the soldiers who died at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. At Cape Sounion you can see the Temple of Poseidon and the ruins of the Temple of Athena. Modern Athens lives a dynamic, rich life. This is a noisy and temperamental city, like its inhabitants. The contrasts of the Greek capital only emphasize its charm. The crowds in the center contrast with the almost rustic appearance of the suburbs. From three to four o'clock in the afternoon the city falls asleep - for the Greeks, the afternoon siesta is as sacred as a weekend trip to visit relatives in the village. Athens comes to life at night - the halls of theaters and the Palace of Music are filled. Everywhere you go - the trendy discotheques in Kolonaki, the frenetic bistros in Exarchi, the pubs and taverns in Pira - there is dancing and partying everywhere. The capital of Greece is of interest not only to history buffs and experts. A short distance from the city is a strip of luxurious beaches known as the “Athenian Riviera”. Athens is a city of amazing fate, which has experienced periods of prosperity and decline, greatness and humiliation throughout its history.

Groups of Indo-Europeans, which were the main core of the formation of the Greek people, during the Middle Helladic era mixed with the pre-Greek population of continental Greece in ethnic and linguistic terms. In linguistic terms, the result of this process was a series of rapid changes that significantly changed the phonetic structure of the language (primarily consonants), and also replaced a very significant number of ancient Indo-European words with vocabulary borrowed from the Aegean substrate. As a result, in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The ancient Greek language arose, preserving the Indo-European grammatical structure, but its vocabulary was already significantly different from the Indo-European proto-language base.

The new arrivals were also heavily influenced by the culture of the conquered pre-Greek population. Thus, when in the 16th century. BC e. mainland Greece of the era of the Mycenaean shaft tombs again becomes at the head of the development of the Aegean civilization, the Greek newcomers already exercise control over almost the entire Hellenic region, but their own culture is still only halfway to a complete synthesis, which the ancient Indo-Europeans should eventually enter into on the territory of the Aegean, original Helladic and specific Cretan-Minoan elements.

The abundance of treasures discovered in the Mycenaean shaft tombs provides interesting evidence reflecting the structure and economic level of early Mycenaean society. It is proof of the rapid accumulation of property that took place in the political centers of individual regions, and at the same time evidence of far-reaching social differentiation. The representatives of the ruling class buried in the shaft tombs were undoubtedly famous warriors, as evidenced by the valuable weapons discovered in the tombs, and their remains are characterized by anthropological features that differ from the more ancient Mediterranean population (powerful physique, more than 180 cm in height). At their disposal were experienced artisans of various professions. This is evidenced by the finds of objects of material culture, confirming the existence of significant differentiation of crafts. Economic ties with other countries are also indicative, especially with Crete and the Asia Minor coast, as well as with the Middle East, cultural world ancient Italy and even Western and Central Europe. A number of finds already indicate a significant degree of synthesis of local and foreign artistic techniques, primarily the interaction of elements of the culture of the mainland with the influence of the refined culture of Minoan Crete.

The appearance of shaft graves in the 16th century. BC e. marks the entry of the Mycenaean civilization onto the main path of development of the history of world culture, but this was only the beginning of the unprecedented rise of this civilization. So rapid accumulation treasures in mine tombs seem to a number of researchers to be so unexpected and amazing in comparison with the modest Middle Helladic past that many are inclined to talk about the appearance of these treasures in the Aegean from somewhere outside.

For example, some scholars believe that around 1600 BC. e. there could have been a campaign of mainland Achaean warriors to Crete, from where they returned home with rich booty. However, no traces of an enemy invasion dating back to that time were found on Crete. At the same time, the growth of the economic potential of the Mycenaeans continues in the subsequent period, and so intensely that it cannot be explained as a consequence of robbery alone, even on a large scale.

Other researchers, in turn, believe that some objects from the shaft tombs reveal certain features pointing to Egypt, and try to connect the ancient Greek legend about the arrival of Danaus in Argolis from North Africa with the established fact that it was in the 17th century. BC e. Egypt was experiencing serious political upheavals. At the end of the 18th century. BC e. From the Caucasus and the mountains of Armenia, a destructive wave of warlike Semitic peoples moved across the entire Middle East, using military equipment unknown until then - horse-drawn war chariots. One part of them crushed the military power of Babylon, and the other - the so-called Hyksos - penetrated at the turn of the 18th and 17th centuries. BC e. into the Nile Delta and conquered most of Egypt for more than a century. The similarity of dates here is truly striking: the end of Hyksos rule in Egypt falls around 1560 BC. e., the arrival of Danaus in Argolis “Parian Marble” dates back to 1510 BC. e., and the richest tombs of burial circle A in Mycenae date back to 1550-1500. BC e. All this led to the hypothesis that a detachment of Mycenaean warriors took part in the last battles with the Hyksos in Egypt, was generously rewarded for their service and returned home along with a group of Egyptian comrades.

This hypothesis is very attractive and quite ingenious, but it does not have reliable confirmation by material culture data. On the contrary, as a result of a detailed analysis of the Egyptian characteristics of objects from the shaft tombs, it was established that we are undoubtedly talking about things that clearly also have features inherent in Minoan objects, so that none of them suggests the need for the existence of direct Egyptian-Mycenaean contacts. The mediating role of Crete played a decisive role in the appearance and subsequent fate of these objects on the mainland. The same can be said about a number of other finds made in shaft tombs. Therefore, at present, most researchers are inclined to believe that the appearance of the treasures of the shaft tombs was the result of the successful economic policy of the local Mycenaean rulers.

However, all this does not at all exclude the possibility of the existence of direct connections with Egypt and, in general, with the entire Middle East, since it was by the time around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. oral tradition coincides with the appearance of a number of other central figures of the early stratum Greek mythology associated in origin with the East. In addition to Danaus, these were, in particular, Cadmus and Pelops. And this is not a mere coincidence, but a real reflection of the ancient ties that existed between the Aegean and the Middle East in the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. It also seems that these legendary figures could be associated with the appearance of certain material values ​​in the Aegean. In all likelihood, they were the bearers of various knowledge and experience of an organizational, economic and technical nature, and when over time they really began to play that prominent role in political life that Greek mythology attributes to them, they undoubtedly achieved much faster and, most importantly, a more stable accumulation of material values ​​in the early centers of Mycenaean culture than could be achieved through just one military campaign.

Tendencies towards interaction between Helladic and Minoan cultures, which can already be traced in finds from the shaft tombs of Mycenae, especially intensified in the second Late Helladic period (PE II), covering almost the entire 15th century BC. e. This was a historical stage characterized, unfortunately, by the lack of more detailed information about the construction of palaces and settlements of that time, since the archaeological layers of this period largely disappeared without a trace under later layers. It is possible that the existence of some important structures from an economic point of view, such as, in particular, the irrigation systems of Boeotia and Argolid, dates back to this time. Again, we are quite well informed about burial methods. Domed tombs, found chiefly in the western Peloponnese in the previous century, also begin to appear in the region of Mycenae, and although most of them have been plundered, their architectural splendor indicates the wealth and noble origin of the rulers and other representatives of the ruling class of the time.

The period of PE II is usually divided into two stages. At the beginning of the century, Crete continued to be an important economic and cultural factor in the Aegean, from where, even at this time, many artistic products were exported to the mainland. Likewise, continental ceramics continue to be strongly influenced by the naturalistic style of Crete of the PM II B period, which is characterized by an appeal to marine themes.

However, this influence is already one of the latest in a long series of phenomena that testify to the outstanding contribution of Cretan civilization to the treasury of Hellenic culture. A few decades later, a wave of strong earthquakes swept through the entire southern part of the Aegean. The destruction they caused culminated in a catastrophic eruption on the island of Thera around 1470 BC. e., as a result of which the island split, and its remains were covered with a multi-meter layer of lava. This eruption was so powerful that, having inflicted a mortal wound on the centuries-old Minoan civilization that had existed on Crete since the end of the Neolithic and subjected the remaining population of the island to unexpected hardships, its consequences ultimately made Crete politically and economically dependent on the Mycenaean Achaeans.

However, Crete was not the only island affected by the eruption of the Fersky volcano. In particular, the destruction recently open city near Agia Irini on Keos dates from the same chronological period. It remains unknown what language the local population spoke - Minoan (ancient Cretan) or Mycenaean (Greek).

It goes without saying that the Thera-Cretan catastrophe was the reason for the disappearance of Cretan influence on the mainland. However, fortunately, these destructions occurred at a time when the Mycenaean culture of the mainland Achaeans was already capable of independent life, and therefore the subsequent decades of the 15th century. BC e. were the period when the final fusion of Minoan and Helladic elements took place in the Aegean in the final Mycenaean synthesis. This applies not only to ceramics, but also to other products of applied art.

Establishing the fact of the disastrous impact of the eruption of the Thera volcano on Cretan civilization allows us today to also form a definite idea of ​​how the Achaeans took possession of Knossos at that time. Contrary to the previously existing point of view, the Achaeans probably appeared here not as conquerors who conquered the Cretan cities, and not as a squad accompanying the Achaean prince to the heir to the Knossos throne, but as a naval reconnaissance expedition - in order to find out the possibility of settlement on Crete, which had been subjected to severe consequences of the Fersky eruption. And since Knossos largely escaped destruction in the literal sense of the word and was only covered with ashes, the Achaeans quickly turned it into the political center of their power, but at the same time they, of course, relied on the support of the local population that had survived the disaster. Knossos of this time is characterized by close adherence to more ancient Cretan traditions and at the same time the influence of a wide variety of influences coming from the mainland.

It seems that, along with Knossos, some other Cretan centers also survived the Thera-Cretan catastrophe, which continued to remain dependent on the central authority of Knossos during the rule of the Achaeans. This conclusion follows primarily from the analysis of toponymic data contained in the texts on the Knossos tablets, which include such names as Amnis, Tullis (later Tyliss) in the central part of northern Crete, Festus in the south of the island, Lukt (later Litt) in the eastern part, Lato further to the east, two places in the extreme east (wa-to = later Paleokastro?, o-du-ro-we = 3akros?) and Koudonia in the west of the island (later Kydonia, modern Chania). And the fact noted above is that agricultural products in these and other areas of Crete around 1380 BC. e. again achieved a significant rise, clearly indicating the overcoming of the economic stagnation caused by the volcanic eruption on Fera that occurred a little less than a century earlier. Thus, it is likely that some administrative centers of Crete again rose from ruins, but were already under the dominion of the Achaean newcomers, who by that time had established their dominance on the island.

This was the appearance of Crete during the periods of PM II (about 1470-1400 BC) and PM III A (about 1400-1380 BC). At this time, the throne room of the Knossos Palace received its currently known appearance, tombs of warriors with Mycenaean weapons appeared near Knossos, and palace-style pottery was made in Knossos itself, revealing significant similarities with the pottery of mainland Greece.

But soon, around 1380 BC. e. The final destruction of this newly rebuilt Knossos Palace also occurs. Researchers have never agreed on how this happened. Was this the result of an earthquake, a revolt of the Cretans against the Achaeans, or an attack by the mainland Achaeans on their Knossos tribesmen who had settled in Crete two or three generations earlier? Oddly enough, some scientists today have again returned to the already traditional explanation of the disasters that occurred in Crete by an earthquake. The theory of internal conflicts is now rejected by most researchers, since it seems incredible that their consequences could affect Crete to such an extent that the victorious side was not able to rebuild at least some of the destroyed centers. In addition, objects of material culture of small forms were made in Crete even later, and at approximately the same level as before the destruction of the palaces.

Recently, scientists are again beginning to return to the idea of ​​​​an invasion of the mainland Achaeans, but only as a additional reason the final decline of Knossos. At first glance, this idea is quite absurd. If Crete had been under the rule of the Achaeans for several decades, then why did the Achaeans themselves suddenly need to destroy it? However, we should not forget that in the second half of the 15th century. BC e. Crete was not a territory politically dependent on the mainland Achaeans, but an independent state, to one degree or another a direct successor of the ancient Minoan traditions. Despite the significant reduction in the export of its goods, Crete at this time continued to remain a serious trading competitor of continental Greece in the Mediterranean markets, and this could not suit the mainland Achaeans. Given these circumstances, the sudden invasion of Knossos by the latter was quite logical. But it is not yet possible to prove this.

Therefore, the only seemingly acceptable solution is to connect the events described above with the hypothesis of an earthquake. If around 1380 BC. e. a natural disaster actually occurred in Crete and news reached Mycenae that Knossos (and possibly other Cretan settlements) had been reduced to ruins; it is unlikely that the mainland Achaeans were interested in their restoration. Most likely, the Achaeans would have done everything possible to prevent this and eliminate such a dangerous rival as Crete from economic life, even if its ruling class already spoke Greek.

However, even after this, Crete continued to remain part of the Aegean world; he continued, although to a lesser extent, to take part in the economic and cultural life of the Aegean. Of course, a part of the Achaean population remained on Crete, speaking Greek and. maintaining ties with his native continent. We have already noted above that even after the fall of Knossos, Linear B continued to be used on Crete for quite a long time, as is clear from a number of Cretan texts dating chronologically from the destruction of Knossos to the end of the 13th century. BC e. This is evidenced primarily by inscriptions on fragments of vessels from Chania in western Crete and the nearby village of Mameluko, as well as one document from Knossos. This also includes the above-mentioned inscriptions on fragments of vessels found in layers of the late 13th century. BC e. in Thebes, regarding which it is generally accepted that they were made in the east of Crete.

Currently, it is becoming more and more obvious that the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. were not a time of complete political isolation of Crete from other regions of the Aegean, but a historical period during which the Achaean element continued to play a certain role. When, somewhat later - at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. – Greek Dorians appeared on Crete, and over the course of several centuries they managed to significantly “doranize” Crete; their dialect still retained some features of the ancient Achaean dialect. And the most ancient, pre-Greek element was not completely assimilated in Crete for quite some time. Back in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. inscriptions from East Cretan Pressos record a completely incomprehensible local language, which has nothing in common with Greek and produces a very unusual impression, primarily due to the excess of the “r” sound.

But let's leave Crete and return again to mainland Greece around 1400 BC. e. The dominance of Knossos taught the Achaeans a lot. First of all, they learned how to organize a palace management system based on written registration of individual economic processes. It is quite possible that the Linear B script used in Mycenaean Greece originated somewhere in the 16th century. BC e. and that on the mainland it was already widespread at that time; however, there is no doubt that the Mycenaeans' perfect mastery of writing was facilitated by more than fifty years of practice in maintaining administrative documentation directly at Knossos.

During the reign of the Achaeans in Knossos, their material culture experienced an equally strong influence. Knossos, the city that the whole Aegean looked upon as the center of Aegean enlightenment, fell into the hands of the Achaeans, and with it all the experience of the Cretans, accumulated here for centuries thanks to the existence of rich eastern and local traditions.

It is quite natural that in mainland Greece at the beginning of the second half of the 15th century. BC e. The following situation has arisen. The objects manufactured here now reach such a high level that, in essence, they are not inferior to Cretan samples. In the decorative arts, the Achaeans continued to be able epigones rather than original masters, but here too, thanks to the combination of mainland traditions with various Minoan influences, they were able to achieve an admirable high level of artistic skill. At the same time, the Cretan influence was perceived not without creative rethinking, and the Achaean masters did not abandon their own traditions inherited from their ancestors, both in practical and aesthetic terms. Thus, in the architecture of dwellings, the main element continues to be the megaron, and among the forms of funeral structures, the domed tomb and its simplified version, the chamber tomb, continue to hold the leading place.

As for trade contacts, in the 15th century. BC e. The ties established in earlier times continue to develop and deepen, and by the end of the century, Achaean settlers settled in a number of areas of the Aegean, which had hitherto been the sphere of Cretan influence (Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor, the island of Rhodes, etc.).

By the 15th century or at the latest by the beginning of the 14th century. BC e. probably also include events that are reflected in a number of legends from the most ancient layer of Greek mythology, i.e. earlier than the “Trojan” layer, but at the same time somewhat later than the one to which the very ancient myths about Danaus, Cadmus and Pelops belonged. These include myths about the Perseids - the predecessors of the Atrides on the throne of Mycenae, about Bellerophon - the ancestor of the Argive king Diomedes, about Neleus - the father of Nestor and about some great joint achievements of the heroes of Greek mythology, also more ancient than the Trojan War, which were the campaign of the Argonauts for the golden fleece or the hunt for the Calydonian boar. The temporal relationship between fathers and sons indicated in these legends in a number of cases should be understood not literally, but as the relationship between ancestors and descendants, between whom there are a number of insignificant generations that have not left a trace in mythology. Thus, the older generations of the “fathers” probably seemed to the heroes of the Trojan War to be as semi-mythical as the Achaean warriors at Troy seemed to Homer’s contemporaries.

Decline of Knossos around 1380 BC e. had a number of other consequences. Although Knossos had already become Achaean about 70 years before this date, the ancient Cretan traditions persisted here later and even continued to exert a significant influence on mainland Greece. After the destruction of Knossos, the Cretan influence was almost not noticeable, and Hellenic culture began to develop along its own path, in which the traditional elements of the Minoan civilization appeared in a completely transformed form.

The tendency towards schematization, which can be traced in Mycenaean art already in the previous period, intensifies even more in the 14th-13th centuries. (PE III A-B). The images, which owe their origin to the naturalism that once existed in Crete, become as if they were devoid of life. Thus, octopuses, represented on Cretan vases of the maritime style of the period PM I B, acquire such a schematic form in Mycenaean ceramics that it is possible to see octopuses here only if you have a rich imagination. But, on the other hand, around the middle of the 14th century. BC e. we unexpectedly encounter images of humans and animals on Mycenaean vessels. This, of course, testifies to the influence of the fresco paintings of Mycenaean palaces, on which hunting and military scenes were one of the most favorite decorative motifs of that time. It is necessary, however, to immediately note that some frescoes, especially from the last period of the existence of Mycenaean palaces, are distinguished by a very low level of technical execution (extreme schematization or, conversely, excessive pedantry in the depiction of details, as well as the use of unnatural colors). On the contrary, some specific motifs of fresco paintings, such as the continuous frieze of military scenes in Mycenae or the picture of men feasting at tables and the image of a singer in Pylos, introduce us to an atmosphere surprisingly close to the world of Homeric poems. This is no longer just the artist’s play with traditional Cretan motifs, which takes place, for example, in the depiction of cult female processions, but an attempt to really reflect the life of the ruling class of Mycenaean society. Looking at these frescoes, it is not difficult to imagine how Odysseus’ son Telemachus enters the megaron of the Pylos Palace and sits down at the banquet table with Nestor and his entourage (“Odyssey”, III.386-396).

Unlike the previous period, XIV and XIII centuries BC. e. provide us with a number of very detailed information about Mycenaean architecture. We are talking about a historical period, at the end of which Mycenaean settlements were mostly already in ruins and were restored only in rare cases, and even then to a limited extent. However, it is quite difficult to determine exactly when one or another of the parts of palaces and residences that have survived to this day was built, since in palace complexes, as a rule, it is quite difficult to distinguish between various reconstructions that were carried out repeatedly. So, during the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. At least three reconstructions were carried out in Mycenae. In the XIV century. BC e. the palace in Mycenae, until that time virtually unfortified, was surrounded by powerful walls that reached all the way to burial circle A, which, however, remained outside the fortifications. In the middle of the 13th century. BC e. the fortification system was expanded towards the southwest; Grave circle A was also included in the territory of the fortress, which after reconstruction acquired its currently known form; The Lion Gate was also built at the same time. At the end of the 13th century. BC e. The territory of the fortress is expanded due to the construction of the north-eastern projection of the walls, which protected access to the water tank. In Tiryns, cyclopean walls were built only in the 14th-13th centuries. BC e. (also carried out in three stages). Powerful walls were erected at the same time in other Mycenaean settlements (Argos, Dendra, Athens, Gla, etc.). In the second half of the 13th century. BC e. Even a defensive wall was being built on the Isthmus of Corinth, which was supposed to cover the interior of the Peloponnese from attack from the sea. Regarding burial structures, we only note that in the 13th century. BC e. they reach their peak in the appearance of domed tombs of exquisite architecture such as the “Treasury of Atreus” at Mycenae.

About who owned these powerful fortresses and who found his last peace in the magnificent tombs nearby, we can only speculate based on Greek mythology. If the mythological legends about the rulers of the Mycenaean throne are taken literally, then somewhere during this period a change of dynasties took place in Mycenae: the power of the Perseids was inherited by the bloodthirsty Pelopids. In Messinia around 1300 BC. e. on the site of an earlier settlement a palace appeared, the power in which belonged to the Neleid family from Thessaly.

Greek mythology also reports that the era we are considering in itself required the existence of powerful fortresses with fortified approaches. During the previous several centuries of economic growth, their owners managed to accumulate a lot of treasures: they had something to hide behind the powerful walls of their palaces. But on the other hand, the ghost of the same wealth located in the neighbor’s palace pushed them onto the path of military rivalry. Obviously, this is exactly how the intra-Achaean internecine conflict arose, which became the reason for the destruction of the powerful city of Central Greece - the seven-gate Thebes. As we have already mentioned, at the heart of these events was a dispute over power over Thebes between the sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polyneices. Since the brothers failed to comply with the original agreement on the alternating change of power, Thebes became the target of two military campaigns. First, the troops of seven leaders, gathered by the Argive king Adrastus, opposed them. However, Thebes repelled this attack, and all seven enemy leaders died in battle. The city was captured and destroyed only a generation later, when the sons of the dead leaders marched against it under the leadership of Adrastus' grandson Diomedes, who later gained fame as one of the heroes of the Trojan War. All this suggests that the destruction of Thebes was the work of that generation of Achaean heroes who lived during the Trojan War. If this war took place around 1220-1210. BC e., which we will discuss below, the fall of Thebes occurs approximately in the third quarter of the 13th century. BC e., and the unsuccessful campaign of seven leaders - in the second quarter of the same century.

The conclusion is that the destruction of Thebes occurs around 1230 BC. e., until recently the results of archaeological research were confirmed. However, today most of them believe that the Theban Palace of the Bronze Age, the so-called Cadmea, was destroyed at the very end of the 13th century. BC e. This temporal inconsistency can be eliminated either by moving the date of the Trojan War to 1190-1180. BC e. (ancient dating of Eratosthenes), or by revising the chronology of Thebes (appropriately highlighting several stages of destruction here). But no matter how the problem of chronology is solved, there is no doubt that political reasons lay behind the destruction of Thebes. If four of the seven leaders of the first anti-Theban coalition were from Argolis - and Argolis had been the center of Hellenic culture since the Early Bronze Age - then the talk, undoubtedly, was about razing Thebes, which was a dangerous competitor, to the ground. The only strange thing is that in the legend there is no mention of Mycenae, and Argos is named as the inspirer of the campaign. But this contradiction is explained by the above-mentioned conditions of the post-Mycenaean time, when Mycenae was already in ruins, and Argos was a powerful center with which not only Argolis, but the entire Peloponnese was forced to reckon.

But what is most worthy of attention and at the same time especially characteristic of the PM III AB period is the extremely intensive trade expansion of the Mycenaeans, coming from mainland Greece to various extra-Helladic areas. Geographically, the Mycenaean world is no longer limited to mainland Greece alone, but includes almost the entire Aegean and a number of other areas of the Mediterranean. The entire Mycenaean world in the broad sense of the word is characterized by a high level of standardization of material culture, which was reflected, in particular, in a significant degree of unification of Mycenaean ceramics, which are found in many areas of the Mediterranean - from Italy to Syria and Egypt. A certain exception to this unification is represented only by the products of two outlying regions - Rhodes and Cyprus, as well as Southern Italy, where independent trading and production centers with pottery workshops, and in some cases with a permanent Achaean population, were formed. During the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. Rhodes becomes a completely Achaean island and, together with the even more distant Cyprus (where, apparently, as early as the 14th century BC, Mycenaean trading posts arose, and soon after that, centers for the production of ceramics) played a prominent role in the spread of the highly valued Helladic- Levantine pottery east coast Mediterranean Sea. At the same time, in the west, the Mycenaean settlement in Scoglio del Tonno in the vicinity of ancient Tarentum reached its peak, where Mycenaean ceramics of the Rhodian type were produced.

In the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. a continuous flow of high-quality ceramic products from mainland Greece and other centers of Mycenaean pottery production is sent to all areas of the Eastern and Central Mediterranean. The same period dates back to the intensive development of Mycenaean connections with the regions located in the west of the Asia Minor coast, and the establishment of contacts with the powerful Hittite power in the center of Asia Minor.

As mentioned above, E. Forrer established in the Hittite texts from Boğazköy a number of parallels between Hittite proper names and similar Greek proper names. The first place in this series is occupied by the name Ahkhiyava(or Ahichia), comparable to the Greek Achaivia and later Achaia - “Land of the Achaeans”. According to the texts, the first Hittite king to come into contact with Ahhiyawa was Supiluliuma I (circa 1370-1330 BC). This ruler sent some person (perhaps even his own wife) to Ahkhiyava, which is interpreted as evidence of ties that already existed by that time between the two states. One should also evaluate the fact that in a difficult moment for him, the Hittite ruler Mursili II (about 1329-1300 BC) appealed to the help of “the god Ahhiyawa and the god of the country Lazpash” and especially that at the Hittite court together with his heir Muwatalli (about 1300-1280 BC), two noble Akhhiyawa youths were raised, one of whom even came from the royal family of Akhhiyawa, and the second was a certain Tavagalawa.

It is the second of these persons that is mentioned in Muwatalli’s lengthy message addressed to the king of Ahhiyawa, which, although only partially preserved, clearly indicates the deterioration of Hittite-Akhhiyawa relations. The army of Tavagalawa and the warriors of the Hittite king allegedly simultaneously entered the Lukka region due to the fact that the local population asked for help first to Tavagalawa, and then to the Hittite king. Matters came to a head of diplomatic friction, which resulted in a military conflict, which ended in victory for the Hittites. Then a Hittite subject, a certain Piyamaratus, appears on the scene, who took 7 thousand prisoners from the Hittite king and went with them to the city of Milavanda, which was obviously under the rule of King Ahhiyawa. The Hittite king demanded from King Ahhiyawa the extradition of Piyamaratus, but, having received no answer, he entered Milavanda with his army. However, there he found neither Piyamaratus, who had sailed from Milawanda by that time, nor Tavagalawa. Therefore, at the end of his message, Muwatalji insists that the king of Ahhiyawa should not allow Piyamaratus to use the territory of Ahhiyawa as a base for the fight against the Hittites, and in this regard mentions some kind of previous conflict related to the region of Wilusa, which was supposedly settled bilateral agreement.

The message was composed in an unusually peaceful tone, obviously caused by the fact that the residence of King Ahhiyawa was beyond the reach of the Hittite troops, i.e. was separated by sea from Milavanda, the possession of Akhhiyawa in the territory of Asia Minor. It is unlikely that at that time there was a region in Asia Minor that could ignore the power of the Hittites with impunity, as the king of Ahhiyawa did, sheltering both Piyamaratus and Tavagalawa. As for the location of Milavanda, at present researchers completely agree with E. Forrer, who identifies Milavanda (or Milavatu) with Miletus, a major Greek center on the western coast of Asia Minor (the more ancient Greek form of the name “Miletus” was Milvat, and the existence of the Mycenaean settlements on the territory of Miletus archaeologically date back to the 15th century BC). The possibility of Ahhiyawa's penetration into the depths of Asia Minor is evidenced by the unequivocal indication of the Hittite king that during the battles with Tavagalawa he refrained from destroying the fortress of Atria.

However, on the other hand, it is possible that the size of Akhhiyawa’s possessions in Asia Minor was different at one time or another. This conclusion can be reached on the basis of the message of the Hittite king Hattusili III (about 1275-1250 BC), addressed to Milawatu, from which it follows that the ruler of this city was dependent on the central Hittite power. Whether Milavanda was at that time identical with Milavata or not, this city, one way or another, no longer belonged to the king of Ahhiyawa. Also worthy of mention is a Hittite document from the time of Hattusili III, which talks about gifts from King Ahhiyawa to the Hittite king.

The question of the development of Hittite-Akhhiyav relations, especially during the reign of the next Hittite king, Tudhalia IV (about 1250-1220 BC), is not clear enough. A fragmentary text dates back to this time, which says that the population of the land near the Sekha River took up arms against the Hittites and that in connection with this, the king of Akhhiyawa personally visited the territory of Asia Minor, although it is difficult to say under what circumstances, as well as in whose side he spoke. The document ends with a message about the defeat of the Hittite opponents. It seems that these actions of the Hittites were closely connected with the hostile actions of the broad anti-Hittite coalition led by the region of Ashshuv, as we read about in another text that apparently dates back to the same time. It gives a list of the names of twenty-two regions that opposed the Hittites. The first of them is named Lucca (usually identified with the later Lycia in the southwest of Asia Minor), in eighth place comes Karkisha (which is seen as Caria located further to the northwest), and the penultimate and last place occupied by Vilusia and Taruisa. If these twenty-two regions are listed, as many scholars believe, in the direction from south to north, then Taruisa and Vilusia should have been located in the extreme northwest of Asia Minor, i.e. exactly where Troy or [V]ilion was located, the Greek toponymic names of which are associated with the Hittite forms Taruis and Vilus[y]ya. The text goes on to talk about the defeat of the mentioned coalition and the destruction of the center of the uprising of Ashshuwa - the region that, according to E. Forrer, gave the name to the entire continent, known in early Greek in the form Asvia, and later Asia (Asia). However, we do not have any reliable information regarding the position that Akhhiyava adhered to during this conflict.

Another interesting document from the time of Tudhalia IV, containing part of the text of the agreement between Tudhalia and the king of the Amurru region (Northern Syria), reports a ban on trade between Amurru and Assyria, which was then in hostile relations with the Hittites, as well as a ban on ships from Ahhiyawa to trade with Assyria . Thus, this document confirms that Akhhiyava was located by the sea and that maritime trade played an important role in its economy. The fact that at that time (or shortly after) the relations between the Hittites and Akhhiyawa were subjected to some serious tests is evidenced by one curious circumstance in the agreement. It talks about kings who were recognized as having dignity equal to that of the Hittite king. And if initially in this part of the agreement the kings of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria and Akhhiyawa were listed in turn, then the mention of the king of Akhhiyawa was erased.

The last Hittite document related to Ahhiyawa is the message of Arnuwanda IV (about 1220-1200 BC to a certain Madduwatta. Madduwatta was once expelled from his land by Attarissia - “a man from the country of Ahhiyawa”, fled to the Hittite king Tudhalia IV and received from him power over the region of Tsipasla in the neighborhood of Arzawa (somewhere in the southern part of Asia Minor). Attarisya pursued him there too, but the Hittite king again came to the aid of Madduwatta and returned his lands to him. However, later, already during his reign Arnuwanda, Madduwatta marched with his old enemy Attarissia against the Hittites and jointly launched an attack on the country of Alashiya (the latter is usually identified with Cyprus). Arnuwanda regarded this as an action hostile to the Hittites, but Madduwatta allegedly objected that he did not know that Alashiya is included in the sphere of interests of the Hittite state.

Thus, from our story about Akhhiyawa it follows that Hittite-Akhhiyawa relations, especially at the initial stage, were undoubtedly distinguished by the features of diplomatic good neighborliness, confirmed in a number of cases by close ties between representatives of the ruling dynasties, although from time to time it was disrupted by various frictions. The source of tension was primarily the private initiative (and probably only tacitly supported by the Akhhiyav rulers) attempts by various Akhhiyav adventurers to penetrate into the depths of Asia Minor and further to the east and southeast. The general tendency of the Hittites to maintain friendly relations in official politics can be explained by the difference in the territorial location of the two states: the power of the Hittites extended mainly to the internal regions of Asia Minor, while the main territory of the Akhhiyav power was located outside its borders.

A more specific determination of the location of Akhkhiyava remains impossible for us. It seems that Cyprus should be excluded from the list of possible places, since in the Hittite texts it appears under the name of Alashiya. Of the Aegean islands, only Rhodes deserves attention. It is there that a significant part of scientists place Akhkhiyava. However, some researchers still equate, following E. Forrer, Akhhiyava and Mycenaean Greece as a whole, emphasizing that neither Cyprus nor Rhodes in the layers of the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. There are no archaeologically attested traces of any more or less significant political center of the palace type. Probably those closest to the truth are those who consider Akhhiyava to be one of the coastal Achaean states that arose in the 15th century. BC e. in the eastern Aegean and surrounding areas due to the needs economic activity Achaeans, whose economy was based on maritime trade, often combined with robbery and piracy. Naturally, Rhodes was most suitable for such conditions, the profitability geographical location which was determined by the proximity of the coast of Asia Minor and at the same time a safe distance from the main centers of the Hittite state.

Kastoria

The oldest fairy-tale city, which is located in Western Macedonia. Gives it special beauty Mountain Lake Orestiada is of volcanic origin. Every traveler who visits this place is invariably delighted by the cozy residential areas with traditional streets, stately mansions, Byzantine churches painted with frescoes of amazing beauty.

This ancient city was founded in 840 BC, although according to other sources its first inhabitants appeared here in the 20th century BC. led by the first semi-mythological king - the god Kekrop, with a human body and serpentine legs. By order of Kekrop, a “Cecropian wall” was erected, blocking the only passage to the Kastorian Peninsula, washed by the legendary Lake Orestiada, named after the Hellenic leader Orestes of Argos (Southern Greece), persecuted by the Dorians back in the 11th-10th centuries BC. On the basis of the later destroyed “Cecrop wall” in 525 AD. By order of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, a fortress wall and tower structures were erected, since the city of Kastoria during the Byzantine Empire (III-IV centuries AD) was the western bastion of Byzantium. However, the medieval version of the name of the city is associated with the presence of a large number of beavers in the lake and, translated from ancient Greek, “kastor” means beaver. Fur coat production, first in Kastoria and later its regions, originated, according to some scientists, already before the 14th century. The need for warm clothing for protection in conditions of a pronounced continental climate with cold winters led to the production of fur products from the skins of animals with thick hair. From the 16th century, when the demand for furs increased, since a fur coat not only served as protection from the cold, but was also an expression of the social well-being of its wearer, furriers in Kastoria began importing raw materials to then supply the whole of Europe with finished products. TO XVIII century The fur coat conquered the entire civilized world and was already considered a must in women's fashion and partly in men's fashion. By that time, it was seen as an essential element of style and elegance. In 1894, the first machine for sewing fur pieces was imported into Kastoria (since before that the work was manual), and thus the mechanization of the fur industry was established, which could not help but march along with technological innovations. That is why Kastoria is also known as a center of fur production recognized throughout the world. Since this industry began to develop here back in the days of the Byzantine Empire, even the most discerning buyer will certainly find a fur coat to suit his taste.

The city has preserved more than 72 churches of the Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods with rare frescoes of the Cretan art school, which includes Theophanes the Greek. The most popular is the temple of the Holy Mother of God Mavriotis (11th century) on the shore of Lake Orestiada near a thousand-year-old plane tree.

Heraklion

The capital of Crete is one of the largest cities in Greece. Its history goes back more than 2.5 thousand years. One of the most famous monuments ancient civilization Crete, Knossos Palace is located 5 km from the city. Of great interest is the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, which has collected a rich collection of exhibits from Knossos, Phaistos, Malia. Heraklion was once the most important port of the Venetians in the eastern Mediterranean. Powerful defensive walls 16th century buildings built around the city have survived to this day. The Venetian fortress, the Morosini fountain, the Church of St. Mark, the Loggia are the main attractions of old Heraklion. Today the city of Heraklion is a large seaport, a shopping and tourist center. The resorts of Heraklion and north-eastern Crete offer all the conditions for a wonderful holiday. 20 km from the city, near the resort villages of Gouves and Stalida, on the sandy coast there are modern hotels and a water park. 34 km east of Heraklion is the tourist center of Malia. 3 km from the city you can visit the ruins of a Minoan palace, where a piece of jewelry was found depicting a bee, which is the talisman of Crete and is still made by jewelers on the island. On the western coast of Malia Bay, 26 km from Heraklion, there is one of the most popular resorts of northern Crete, Hersonissos, which is famous for its magnificent beaches and a large number of shops, bars, restaurants and discos that attract thousands of tourists, especially young people.

Sparta Σπάρτη

Sparta (ancient Greek Σπάρτη, lat. Sparta) is an ancient state in Greece in the region of Laconia in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the valley of the Evrotas River.

State structure

Ancient Sparta is an example of an aristocratic military camp state, which, in order to suppress the huge mass of the forced population (helots), artificially restrained the development of private property and unsuccessfully tried to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves. The basis for the emergence of the state in Sparta, usually attributed to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e., there were general patterns of decomposition of the primitive communal system. The organization of political power among the Spartiates was typical for the period of the collapse of the primitive communal system: two tribal leaders (possibly as a result of the unification of the Achaean and Dorian tribes), a council of elders, and a national assembly. In the VI century. BC e. has developed, the so-called “Lycurgus system” (establishment of heloty, consolidation of the community of Sparta by equalizing them economically and politically and turning this community into a military camp). At the head of the state were two archagets, who were chosen every eight years by divination by the stars. The army was subordinate to them and they had the right to most military spoils, had the right of life and death in campaigns.

Positions and authorities

Kings of Sparta - Sparta was always ruled by two kings from two dynasties: the Agids and the Eurypontids. Both dynasties descended from King Aristodemus. In case of war, one of the kings went on a campaign, and the other remained in Sparta.

Ephors are elected positions in whose hands judicial power was concentrated (there were 5 ephors in total, two of which, in case of war, accompanied the king on a campaign).

Gerusia is the highest government body in Sparta. Gerousia consisted of 30 people (28 geronts over the age of 60, elected for life, and 2 kings).

Navarch is one of the highest military positions in Sparta. The navarch commanded the Spartan fleet and had very broad powers, sometimes even going beyond the purely military (Aristotle called the navarch’s power “almost the second royal power”). The navarch was, for example, one of the most famous Spartan commanders, Lysander.

Chilo - legislator, one of the Seven Sages

XI century BC e. - emergence of the city-state of Sparta.
10th century BC e. – the territory of Laconia was conquered by the Dorians, who turned some of the former Achaean inhabitants into perieci (politically powerless, but civilly free), and some into helots (state slaves); The Dorians themselves formed the dominant class of the Spartiates.
9th century BC e. – the legislation of Lycurgus makes Sparta a strong military state that acquired hegemony over the Peloponnese and even dominance throughout Ancient Greece, right up to the period of the Greco-Persian wars.
743-724 BC e. - First Messenian War. Sparta captures part of Messenia.
685-668 BC e. - Second Messenian War. Sparta captures all of Messenia.
500-449 BC e. – Greco-Persian Wars.
480 BC e. - Battle of Thermopylae. The feat of three hundred Spartans.
479 BC e. – Battle of Plataea. Final victory for the Spartans and their allies.
479-464 BC e. - the war with Tegeatida, which ended with the victory of Sparta.
464-455 BC e. – Third Messenian War (revolt of the Messenian helots).
460-445 BC e. - Little Peloponnesian War. Division of spheres of influence between Athens and Sparta. Peace treaty for 30 years.
457 BC e. – Battle of Tanagra. Victory of the Spartans and their allies.
431-404 BC e. - Peloponnesian War. In their rivalry with the Athenians, the Spartans defeat them and become the dominant state in Greece.
427 BC e. – Capture of Plataea by the Spartans and destruction of most of the population.
425 BC e. - Defeat of the Spartans at Pylos.
422 BC e. – Battle of Amphipolis. Victory of the Spartans and their allies.
418 BC e. - Battle of Mantinea. Victory of the Spartans.
395-387 BC e. - Corinthian War. Victory of Sparta and Persia.
378-362 BC e. – The Boeotian War between the Boeotian League led by Thebes and the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. No one won this war, but both sides were significantly weakened.
371 BC e. – Battle of Leuctra. Sparta loses its dominance in the war with Thebes.
362 BC e. - Battle of Mantinea. The battle ended in victory for the Spartans.
331 BC e. – War of Sparta and Macedonia.
331 BC e. – Battle of Megalopolis. Defeat of Sparta and its allies.
245-241 BC e. - an attempt at reform by Agis, which ended in failure.
235-221 BC e. - an attempt at reforms by Cleomenes, which were very successful, but were canceled by the Macedonian king Antigonus III after the military defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Sellasium.
229-222 BC e. - Cleomenes' War. The war of Sparta against the Achaean League and Macedonia for hegemony in the Peloponnese.
222 BC e. – Sparta suffers a heavy defeat at the Battle of Sellasia. Sparta is forced into the Hellenic Union.
220-217 BC e. - An allied war in which Sparta acts as an ally of the Aetolian League against the Hellenic League.
215-205 BC e. – First Macedonian War.
207 BC e. - Battle of Mantinea. The battle ended with the defeat of the Spartans and the death of their king Machanidas.
204 BC e. - The Spartans unsuccessfully try to capture Megalopolis.
201 BC e. - The Spartans invade Messenia but are defeated at Tegea.
195 BC e. – Laconian War, defeat of Sparta and its annexation to the Achaean League.
147 BC e. – Sparta leaves the Achaean League and receives the support of Rome. The Achaean War begins.
146 BC e. - all of Greece falls under the rule of Rome and becomes the Roman province of Achaea. Sparta and Athens at the same time received the rights of self-government within their territory, as a sign of memory of their former glory.

Estates

Aristocracy

Gomians (literally “equals”) are full citizens; they are most often called Spartans and Spartiates.
Parthenians (literally “virgin-born”) are the descendants of the children of unmarried Spartan women (the class appeared during the 20-year First Messenian War, then was deported to Tarentum).

Hypomeions (literally “descended”) are impoverished or physically disabled citizens, deprived of some civil rights for this.
Mofaki (literally "upstarts") are children of non-Gomaites who received a complete Spartan upbringing and therefore have some chance of obtaining full citizenship.
Neodamons (literally “new citizens”) are former helots (from among the Laconians) who received partial citizenship (the class appeared during the Peloponnesian War).
Perieki are free non-citizens (roughly analogous to the Athenian metics).

Laconian helots (who lived in Laconia) were state slaves, and it was they who sometimes received freedom (and, since the Peloponnesian War, also partial citizenship).
Messenian helots (who lived in Messenia) were state slaves, unlike other slaves, who had their own community, which later, after the independence of Messenia, served as the basis for recognizing them as free Hellenes.

Training of young Spartans

The Agogae system is a system of military education in Sparta. Contrary to popular belief, not every boy born in Sparta had to go through this system. This system was mandatory only for male children of full-fledged citizens (with the exception of royal ones). For other boys from other classes, going through this system was a special privilege, giving them a chance at full citizenship.

At birth, the boy was taken and taken to the edge of the Apophetes abyss, where he was examined for a very long time and carefully. If the boy was sick or weak, he was thrown into the abyss. And those who were left alive were subjected to various tests from infancy. The cribs in which the children slept were very rough and hard. At the age of seven, boys were sent to special military camps. There they learned to survive. Those who couldn't cope died. They slept on straw bedding, and they were only allowed to wear clothes from the age of 12. Some boys put nettles in their bedding so that it would burn them and warm them. The boys were intensely engaged in physical exercises, practicing wielding a sword and throwing a spear. They had to find food for themselves - steal, rob, and if necessary, kill.

They were sometimes allowed to “have fun,” that is, to organize so-called cryptias - the boys ran to neighboring villages (helots) and robbed them, and they took the strongest men with them and tore out their intestines, watching them die. At the age of 17, when the young Spartans had to return home, the last test awaited them - they had to get to the temple of Artemis, which was located very high in the mountains. Once there, the Spartan had to “make a sacrifice.” The priests of the temple tied the young man over a large sacrificial bowl and began to whip him with wet rods until the first drops of blood. It was like this if the young man did not make a single sound, but as soon as he made a sound, they beat him even harder until he remained silent. They could have beaten him until he lost consciousness and even died. This is how the weak were eliminated. Girls in Sparta did not go through this system, but they were forced to play a lot of sports, and sometimes were taught to use weapons.

Gorgippia (Sindian harbor) Γοργιππία – antique city on the Black Sea coast, which existed in the 4th century BC. BC - III century AD e. as part of the Bosporan kingdom. Founded on the site of an ancient city, the center of the Sind tribe. It got its name from the royal governor Gorgippus. The area of ​​the city was more than 40 hectares, it was surrounded by fortress walls. At the end of the 1st-2nd centuries BC. e. The city minted its own coin. It reached its greatest prosperity in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e., becoming a major trade and craft center of the Bosporan kingdom. It was destroyed around 240 as a result of the invasion of barbarian tribes.

The settlement is located in the center of the modern city of Anapa. City blocks and rich burials have been partially excavated. An open-air museum-reserve “Gorgippia” has been created, where stone-paved streets, foundations and walls of dwellings, remains of workshops, wineries, fish-salting baths, marble slabs with inscriptions, sarcophagi of local nobility recovered from the necropolis, etc. are presented.

In 1975, in the center of Anapa, while digging a pit, a unique monument of ancient culture was discovered - a painted crypt of the Greek nobility. The crypt is called by archaeologists the “Crypt of Hercules” and dates back to the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century. Another crypt with two sarcophagi was discovered nearby. It turned out to be unplundered. One sarcophagus contained the remains of a noble Gorgippian with rich decorations. In another sarcophagus, two girls were buried - also with rich decorations. The finds formed the basis of the “Golden Pantry” of the Krasnodar Regional Museum-Reserve.

Mariupol

Mariupol (Ukrainian Mariupol) is a city in southeastern Ukraine on the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov at the mouth of the Kalmius and Kalchik rivers.
Area densely populated by Greeks
Country Ukraine
Region: Donetsk region
Founded: 16th century
Former names
until 1778 – Domakha (Kalmius palanka)
before 1780 – Pavlovsk
until 1948 – Mariupol
until 1989 – Zhdanov
Population: 493,245 people (2009)
Agglomeration: Mariupol City Council
Confessional composition: Orthodox, Protestants, Jews
Telephone code: +380 629

Mariupol has been known since the beginning of the 16th century as a Cossack fortress, but it became a real city only after the resettlement of Crimean Greeks to the Azov region in 1778-1780. At the end of the 19th century, the city appeared Railway, a new large port and metallurgical plants - Nikopol and Russian Providence, later merged into MMK named after. Ilyich. During the years of industrialization, the giant Azovstal plant and many other enterprises were built here. The city survived the fascist occupation (1941-1943) and economic recession (late 20th century).

The central district of Mariupol (from Metallurgov Avenue to Stroiteley Avenue) is almost completely administrative and commercial buildings: the city council building, post office, Lukov cinema, Mariupol Humanitarian University, Priazov State Technical University - Perm State Technical University, central city library named after Korolenko, large stores (supermarket “Moscow”, “A Thousand Little Things”, etc.).

From Mariupol there is a direct railway connection with many cities of Ukraine, Russia, Belarus. From Mariupol airport there are flights to cities in Ukraine, Russia, Turkey, Greece and other countries. The city has an international bus station and a suburban bus station AC-2. The Mariupol sea trade port (the largest on the Sea of ​​Azov and one of the largest in Ukraine, cargo turnover is about 15 million tons per year) carries out cargo transportation to dozens of countries around the world all year round.

Chersonesos

City-state, founded at the end of the 5th century BC. Greek colonists. The Heraclean peninsula, on which Chersonesus was located (near the modern city of Sevastopol), was protected from its Taurian neighbors by a whole system of fortifications, which were a unique type of fortress estates. The powerful walls and towers around the city itself indicate that danger often threatened it from the warlike Scythian tribes of the steppe Crimea. In addition to the Heraclean Peninsula, Chersonese also owned lands on the western coast of Crimea, where Kerkinitis and the so-called Beautiful Harbor were located under its control.

According to its political structure in V-I centuries BC. Chersonesus was a democratic slave-owning republic (ancient polis), from the 1st century BC. - an aristocratic republic, dependent on Rome, from the 4th century - in vassal dependence on Byzantium.

In the Middle Ages (until the 15th century) it was called Kherson, Korsun. Ruins on the outskirts of modern Sevastopol. Ruins of walls with towers, neighborhoods, temples, theaters, workshops, etc. Since 1978 - State Historical and Archaeological Reserve.

Cities arose before our era. They were built by representatives of an ancient civilization that spread far beyond the borders of modern Greece. Where were its borders? Where were cities built and how did they change over time?

Ancient civilization

Currently, the Republic of Greece is a state in Europe located in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and on the adjacent islands. It is washed by five seas and covers an area of ​​131,957 square kilometers.

The small European country is the successor to a culture that influenced the development of science and art throughout Western civilization. The following periods are distinguished in the history of its development:

• Cretan-Mycenaean (III-I millennium BC);
• Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC);
• archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC);
• classical (V-IV centuries BC);
• Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - mid-1st century BC).

By the way, Ancient Greece was not a single state with strict borders and a capital. A represented many independent cities that fought and competed with each other. Most of the cultural achievements of this civilization known to us were made during its heyday - the classical period, when the policies of the Aegean Sea united into a union led by Athens.

The first Greek cities

Three thousand years ago on the island of Crete there was a pre-Greek population with a highly developed culture. They already had religious cults, a complex political and economic system, fresco painting and even writing. All this was appropriated by the first tribes of the Greeks - the Achaeans, having conquered and assimilated the Minoans.

First they conquered the Balkan Peninsula and local agricultural tribes. Having united with the pre-Greek peoples on Crete, the Achaeans gave rise to the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. The formation of the Greek nation begins here.

In the second millennium BC, the Mycenaeans already had their own cities (Mycenae, Athens, Tiryns, Orchomena). Like the Minoans, their centers were luxurious palaces. But, unlike the previous peaceful culture, the cities of the Mycenaeans were surrounded by powerful walls. Inside them, as a rule, there was another wall surrounding the palace and the acropolis.

The sudden appearance of barbarian tribes managed to destroy the Mycenaean civilization. Only a few remain local residents(Ionians, Aeolians). The invasion of the barbarian Dorians and related tribes pushed back the development of culture hundreds of years ago.

Wooden and clay houses replace former two-story palaces, and there are no trade relations. At the same time, hostilities, piracy and slavery intensify. In addition, the population is engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and greek cities rather resemble villages.

Great Colonization

Society is divided into classes. The level is growing Agriculture, crafts and military power. The city becomes an important economic, religious and political center. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Shipbuilding is developing, and with it trade in products and slaves.

Metropolises begin to send colonists to explore new lands. Fortified city-states, or policies, appeared on the shores of the Northern Black Sea region, the Mediterranean Sea and Asia Minor. This is how Miletus, Colophon, Olbia (Ionians), Smyrna (Aeolians), Halicarnassus, Chersonesos (Dorians) arise. Greek civilization extends from modern Rostov-on-Don all the way to Marseille.

Colonization takes place mainly peacefully. A special person, an oikist, chooses a landing site, negotiates with local tribes, conducts cleansing rituals and plans the location of the settlement.

Polis were usually located on the coast, near sources of drinking water. One of the main criteria for choosing a location was the relief. It had to provide natural protection, preferably there would be hills to accommodate the acropolis.

Life in policies

Ordinary workers, dissatisfied with the local tyrant aristocrats, often signed up for the fate of the colonists. In the colonies, the influence of tribal traditions is not so noticeable, which allows not only the economy, but also culture to grow. Very soon the policies become prosperous states with rich art, architecture and an active socio-political life.

Standard Greek cities were inhabited by 5 to 10 thousand people. Their territory covered up to 200 square meters. km. The population of large policies numbered up to two hundred thousand people (Sparta, Lacedaemon). Viticulture, olive oil production, horticulture and gardening represented the basis of the economy and were sold through barter or sale. The population consisted mainly of farmers and artisans.

The poleis were democratic republics. At the heart of society was civil society. Everyone had land plot as a pledge of his obligations to the policy. With the loss of the plot, he was also deprived of his civil rights. There were up to two thousand full-fledged citizens (male warriors) taking part in politics. The remaining residents (foreigners, slaves, women and children) did not vote.

Policy layout

The first policies did not have a clear structure and layout. Ancient Greek cities were built according to the terrain. A port or harbor was created on the coast. Policies often had a “two-tier system.” On a hill there was an acropolis (upper city), surrounded by powerful walls.

The acropolis contained the main temples and monuments. The lower city housed residential buildings and a market square - the agora. It served as the center of political and social life. The courthouse, assembly and People's Council were located here, transactions were made and city decisions were made.

In the classical period, policies acquired a systematic layout developed by Hippodamus. Residential areas and streets form a grid with rectangular or square cells. The agora and houses are located strictly within the cells. All objects are grouped around several wide main streets. Centuries later, this plan was used as a basis by architects in New York and other cities.

Names of Greek cities

The borders of Ancient Greece affected the territories of many modern countries: Bulgaria, Ukraine, Italy and others. Prosperous colonial cities long ago turned into ruins, and their names, due to political and social reasons, changed.

Modern Greek cities have retained their former names. Athens, Corinth, Thessaloniki, and Chalkis still exist in the world. In some countries they only changed their names slightly, for example, the colony of Akragant in Italy became Agrigento, and Gela became Jeley. In the Northern Black Sea region, the modern names of Greek cities have become completely unrecognizable.

Listed below are those ancient Greek cities of the Black Sea region that changed their names. In parentheses are their modern names and locations:

• Panticapaeum (Kerch, Crimea);
• Kerkinitida (Evpatoria, Crimea);
• Dioscuria (Sukhumi, Abkhazia);
• Chersonesus (near Sevastopol, Crimea);
• Olvia (near Ochakov, Ukraine);
• Cafe (Feodosia, Crimea).

Cities of Greece today

Today there are 65 cities in Greece. Many of them were founded before our era. What are the largest modern cities in Greece: Athens, Thessaloniki and Patras?

Athens is the capital of Greece, its main economic and cultural center. This is one of oldest cities Europe, the first mention of it dates back to the 16th century BC. Modern Athens is famous not only for its ancient monuments, but also for its first-class nightclubs and huge shopping centers. Today, about 4 million people live in this metropolis.

Thessaloniki is the second most populous city in the country. It is also the oldest city in which many monuments of the ancient and Byzantine periods have been preserved. Thessaloniki is also famous for its numerous industrial enterprises: metallurgical, textile, ship repair. The second largest brewery in Greece operates here.

Patras is the main city of the Peloponnese with a population of about 230 thousand inhabitants. It was founded in the sixth century BC. It was here that Andrew the First-Called, one of the twelve apostles of Christ, died a martyr's death. Modern Patras is an important cultural center of Southern Europe. Every spring the famous Patras Carnival is held here.

Ancient Greece is the mother of modern European culture. In this top, Delitant.media author Alexandra Mikhailidi has collected her most important children - cities that were first among equals

Miletus is the richest ancient greek city. It was located in Caria on the western coast of Asia Minor. Herodotus especially singled out Miletus, calling it “the pearl of Ionia (region of Asia Minor).”

The first settlements on the territory appeared in the second half of the 4th millennium BC. e. The city received its name in honor of the hero Miletus, who, according to legend, founded it after moving from Crete.

Miletus earned his wealth thanks to the tyrant rulers Thrasybulus, Thoas and Damasenor. The city had 80-90 colonies along the banks of the Pontus, among which were Cyzicus, Sinop, A bidos, Tomi and Olivia. Even in Ancient Egypt There was a Milesian colony - Navkartis. Miletus defended its independence more than once, fighting the Lydian kings and Persian rulers.

Now the ruins of Miletus are located on the territory of modern Turkey. Archaeologists found fragments of Minoan-style frescoes and Linear writing texts in it.

Herodotus called Miletus "the pearl of Ionia"

During the classical period, Corinth rivaled Athens and Thebes in trade and control of transport across the isthmus. Also until the middle of the 6th century BC. e. he was the largest supplier of black-figure pottery to other cities throughout the Greek world. However, leadership later passed to Athens.

On the acropolis of the city there was the main temple, which is dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite. From the memories of eyewitnesses, the temple was the center of priestesses (putanas), of whom more than a thousand accumulated there. They always wore long hair and the longer the hair, the higher the demand for it. Local men believed that the hair of the priestesses of the temple of Aphrodite had magical properties: it helped its owners not to get tired and restore internal balance.

By the way, ordinary women wore long dresses that covered them from head to toe. Priestesses never wore scarves, veils or anything else that would cover their hair.

In addition, the Isthmian Games, ancient Greek games in honor of the god Poseidon, were held in Corinth: there were gymnastic, equestrian, poetic and musical competitions.

Corinth was the largest supplier of black-figure ceramics

Athens, a city named after the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom, is considered to be the cradle of European civilization. Athens is the birthplace of theater, philosophy and democracy.

In general, the tradition of theater in Athens was different from modern ones. Firstly, only men could become actors who did not use facial expressions during the performance, but conveyed emotions only with the help of masks and plasticity. Also, tragedies were valued more than comedies, which were generally considered entertainment for the plebeians.

In ancient Greece, Athens had the status of a city-state; it was governed by a popular assembly, which included citizens of the polis. Executive branch was at the Council of Five Hundred, which included representatives of the phyla (socio-professional groups) - they were chosen by lot. Judicial and supervisory power was in the hands of the grand jury, also elected by lot. Thus, any citizen could become the ruler of Athens or the chief judge.

Now Athens is the economic, cultural and administrative center of Greece. In the 30s of the 20th century, the study of Athens by archaeologists began, but the systematic nature of excavations was acquired only thanks to the formation of English, French and German archaeological schools in Athens in the 70s and 80s.

In ancient Greece, Athens had the status of a city-state

Thebes is the city of seven gates. It was surrounded by a wall on all sides, and a stream flowed near the city, which may have been used instead of a moat. This stream, by the way, was sung by Virgil in his works.

Many ancient Greek myths are associated with Thebes, since the history of Thebes dates back to the heroic periods. Mention of the city can be found in the tales of Cadmus (the founder of Cadmeia), Zeta and Amphion, who are the founders of Thebes, Dionysus, the Labdacids and, of course, Hercules.

There are also known myths about Oedipus, about the origin of the seven kings against Thebes, about the campaign of the epigones. Many philologists and historians find real historical memories in the texts of ancient legends, although, of course, much of them is fiction. However, in the myths there are memories of the struggle of Sikyon and Argos with Thebes, in the legends of Hercules - memories of the prehistoric struggle of the two rival cities of Boeotia, Thebes and Orchomenus of Minius

In addition, it was Thebes that gave the world two widespread complexes - Oedipus and Electra.

Adrianople is an ancient city in Thrace or Paphlagonia (here in 368 the local Slavs, Antes and Goths rebelled against Rome), in modern Turkey - the city of Edirne on the Maritsa River.
Aquileia is a historical region on the Adriatic Sea. Local Slavs were among the first to accept Christianity, so the department here was headed by a patriarch. After the destruction of Aquileia by Attila in 452, the bishop moved to Grado.
Andalusia (Andarusia, Vandalusia) - a historical region in Spain, was founded by the Goths in the 5th century; According to it, the Goths were called vandals.
Arkona is a fortified city of the Baltic Slavs in Pomerania, on the island of Ruyan (modern Rügen) with the temple of Svyatovid. Destroyed by the Danish king Valdemar 1 in 1168.
Artaxata is an ancient city near modern Yerevan, founded by “blond beasts”, the predecessors of the Armenians.

Asgard (Tana, Adzak, Kazak, Kazava, Asgard on Tanakis) - ancient names of the city of Azov on the Don.
Baghdad - (God-given, City of Peace, Irinople) an ancient city in Mesopotamia, the capital of Iraq. In 762 it became the capital of the Caliphate, and since 1534 it belonged to the Turks.
Barcelona (Barcelan) is a city in NE Spain; founded in the 3rd century. BC.
White Mountain - historical place near Prague, here the Czechs were defeated by the Germans and submitted to the power of the Catholics.
Belaya Krinitsa is a historical region in Bukovina, the center of a schismatic land of refugees from Russia from the terror of Christians with the cities of Klimoutsy, Sokolniki, Mehidra.
Belgrade - 1) see Akkerman; 2) ancient Singidun or Singidon, the capital of Serbia on the Danube.
The White Sea is the former Slavic name for the Mediterranean Sea.
Beresty (Brest-Litovsk) is the former name of the ancient Russian city, now Brest in Belarus.
Berles is the former Slavic name for Berlin.
Bern is the capital of Switzerland.
Bessarabia is a historical region (received its name from the Bessians, Vosci, Satras, Thracians after the conquest by Rome in 168) between the Dniester and Prut rivers (now the main part of Moldavia and Odessa region). In the 10th-11th centuries. in Kievan Rus, then in the Galicia-Volyn principality, from the 14th century. in the Principality of Moldova, from the beginning of the 16th century. as part of Turkey, since 1812 as part of Russia, in 1918-40 as part of Romania.
Bethsan is one of the names of the ancient city of Scythopolis in Palestine.
The Principality of Blaten is a Slavic principality of the Rusyns around Lake Blaten (Lake Balaton, Hungary).
Bologna - (Bologna,) modern name the former Etruscan capital city of Volsinia (Folsina), after being captured by the Roman Greeks in 189 BC. became known as Bononia.
Bornholm - (Berholm, Bear Hill), an island in the Baltic Sea, territory of Denmark.
Bohuslan - (Boguslan - Divine Land - translated from the ancient local dialect) an area in southwestern Sweden, famous rock paintings Bronze and Iron Ages with solar signs.
Braga is the ancient capital of the people who lived on the territory of Portugal before the conquest by Rome; ruins of the Roman garrison settlement of Bracara Augusta.
Branibor is the former Slavic name of the city of Brandenburg before its capture by Catholic Germans.
Bratislava is the capital of Slovakia; an ancient Celtic settlement captured by the Romans (Pison, Pigeon, Pressburg).
Bremen is an ancient Slavic city on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, which was captured by the Germans in 778 and became the center of a Christian metropolitanate.
Bremen is the former name of an ancient Russian city on the territory of modern Germany.
Brittany is a historical region in western France, on the peninsula of the same name; was captured by the Normans and renamed after them.
Brunzowik is the former name of the modern city of Brunswick.
Brusa (Prusa) - an ancient city in Bithynia, at the foot of Olympus, was the residence of the Ottoman Turks before they captured Constantinople.
Budishin is the Slavic name of the city of Bautzen in Germany.
Boulogne (Boulagne) is a city and historical region in France.
Burgundy is a historical province of France, the center is the city of Dijon. The name was given by the fair-haired Huns or Burgundians, who came in the 5th century. to Gaul from the banks of the Vistula and Oder, after accepting Christianity they submitted to the Franks.
Burdigala is the former name of a Gaulish (Celtic) city; now Bordeaux in France.
Var is the oldest name of a city in the Czech Republic, famous for the extraction of salt from natural thermal (up to 73 degrees) springs, changed by the Germans to Carlsbad, by the Czechs to Karlovy Vary.
Warnow is the name of the city Waren (Müritz).
Varangian Sea - Baltic Sea.
Vedegoshch (Vedegast) is the name of the city of Volgast (Wolgast Germany).
Velehrad - (Devin), the capital of Moravia in ancient times.
Velehrad is the former name of the city of Diedrichshagen.
Veligrad is the former name (Rerik, Rarog) of the city of Macklenburg. Rurik's father, Godoslav, the last ruler of the principality, was executed here.
Velikomir is the former name of a Russian city (modern Ukmerge, Lithuania).
Wieliczka is the later name of ancient Tiberiopolis (the modern city of Strumnica) in Western Macedonia.
Vienna is the city of the Celts (Gauls) Vindobor before being captured by Rome and renamed Vindobona.
Hungary - (Ugria, ancient Pannonia, part of Dacia) - a historical region inhabited by the Goths from the 3rd century, then by the Huns and Avars; in the 8th century Karl Vel. settled many Slavs here; in the 9th century occupied by the Mongols or Hungarians under the leadership of Arpad.
Wenden - official name residences of the Swordsmen from the moment of construction in 1203 to 1917 (modern - Cesis in Latvia).
The Vendian state was the state of the Polabian Slavs and Pomeranians in the 40s of the 11th century. - first third of the 12th century. led by the Bodriches.
Vänern is a lake in southern Sweden; the Göta Älv river flows out of the lake; basic ports - Vänersborg, Karlstad.
Venessen is a historical region in southeastern France.
Hungary is the Russian (Slavic) name of the country Magyar Kostarsasag with the capital Budapest.
Venice is a republic on 12 islands of the Adriatic Sea, founded by fugitives from Aquileia and other cities, Veneds (or Venets), fleeing the invasion of the Huns. It had a great influence on the destinies of many countries and peoples, and began to decline with the discovery of America and the shift in trade routes. After the death of the last true ruler of Venice, Sophronius Kutovali, unrest began, which led to the unification with Lombardy into the Lombard-Venetian kingdom.
Vincennes - old City, a suburb of Paris, to the south of which is the former royal castle and park - the Bois de Vincennes.
The Vienna Woods is a spur of the Eastern Alps, near Vienna; oak and beech forests, replete with monuments of Slavic paganism; resting-place.
Venta - a river in Lithuania; flows into the Baltic Sea; at the mouth - Ventspils.
Verona is a city in northern Italy on the Etx River, the capital of Theodoric (Fedor Rex) of the Ostrogoths, from 1405 it belonged to Venice, then to Austria.
Vesit was the official name of the city of Viesite in Latvia until 1917.
Wessex (All Saxons, modern Wessex) is a historical region in England - the first kingdom in Britain.
Vilno (Vilnya) is the former name of the ancient Russian capital city, which in 1939 was transferred to Lithuania (modern Vilnius).
Wiltse - Slavic state of the 7th-9th centuries. in the Baltic Pomerania.
Vindava is the former name of an ancient city on the shores of the Baltic Sea at the confluence of the Venta River into the sea. In 1242 it was captured by the crusaders.
Vindobor - (Vienna Woods) the name of a Celtic (Gallic) city on the edge of the Vienna Woods before its capture by the Romans in the 1st century. AD and renaming Vindobona; modern - Vienna, capital of Austria.
Wishemir is the former name of the city of Wismar in Pomerania, Germany.
Vaudemont is a county in Lorraine.
Vodina (Vodena) is the former name of the city of Moclena or Edessa (Edessa) in South Macedonia.
Wolin is an ancient Slavic city in Poland on the island of the same name at the mouth of the river. Audra.
Volyn is the former name of the city of Jomsburg in Germany.
Vyshgorod is generally an upper, fortified city, a Kremlin, a detinets. In particular, a city on the right bank of the Dnieper, built by Vladimir in 989 as his residence.
Vienne (Venne) - historical city in Dauphine (France).
Vyatka is the later name of the ancient Russian city of Khlynov.
Havel is the former name of the Slavic city (7-9 centuries) of the Polabian Rus on the territory of modern. Deutschland; modern - Havelberg.
Gadara is an ancient city east of Lake Tiberias (Genisaret) in the Gerchesinsky country. Here Jesus cast out a legion of demons.
Gaza is an ancient city in the Middle East, on east coast Mediterranean Sea as part of Palestine.
Ai is a city of the Canaanites (subjects of the khan) to the southeast of Bethel, which was conquered by I. Navin and given to the tribe of Benjamin.
Gilead Mountains, Gilead - (hill of testimony) modern name of Gil-ad, mountains in Palestine north of the Dead Sea.
Galata (milk market) - the historical part of Istanbul; the capital city of Galatia - the main city of the Gauls (Celts).
Galatia is a historical region in Asia Minor, inhabited by Gauls (Celts) who converted to Christianity in the 3rd-4th centuries.
Gallipoli is a city in Italy.
The Gallipoli Peninsula is located in the European part of Turkey, between the strait. Dardanelles and Saros Gulf of the Aegean Sea.
Galilee is a historical region in northern Palestine near the Mediterranean Sea, inhabited by pagans. From here - all the apostles, comrades of I. Christ. After the fall of Jerusalem, the Jews moved here and made the Tiberias Academy their center. Many residents then moved to the Balkans.
Galicia is the ancient Chervonaya (Chervlenaya - Red) Rus' or Chervlensk cities, in the upper reaches of the Dniester and Vistula, along the northern slope of the Carpathians.
Gull is the ancient name of the city of Hull in England, a port on the North Sea, in the estuary of the river. Humber.
Gaul (lat. Gallia from the Roman name for the Celts) - historical regions that were not part of the Roman Republic until the 2nd century. BC.; the territory of modern Spain, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland and parts of other territories.
Garama is the capital city of the mysterious white population of Garamans who lived in Libya; in 21 BC they were conquered by Rome and disappeared into the local population, especially among the Tuaregs. Below they were assimilated by the Arabs.
Gargan is a mountainous area in Italy facing the Adriatic Sea, famous for its monasteries.
Gardarika - (country of cities) is the former European name of Northern Rus' with its capital Staraya Ladoga - the predecessor of Novgorod.
Garia (Harrien) is an ancient Estonian maakond (land) in the north of modern Estonia from the city of Varbola. In the 13th century captured by Denmark, including the land of Rävala from the city of Revel (modern Tallinn). In 1347 it was ceded to the Livonian Order, and from 1561 - in Sweden. In Russia since 1710 - Revel district of the Estland province.
Heidelberg is an ancient city in the Federal Republic of Germany, known as the oldest (600,000 years old) Chalcolithic site of ancient (Heidelberg) man. In the 5th century BC. The Celts built a fortified refuge and religious buildings on the Holy Mountain. OK. 80 AD captured by the Romans (held until 260), and then in the hands of the local population. In 1196 it was first mentioned under its modern name.
Gelonia (Geolan) is a historical region, a forested country located north of Scythia.
Helvetia - Celtic land between the Main and the Alps; later between Lake Constance and Lake Geneva; Currently, Helvetia is the Latinized name for Switzerland.
The land of Genisaret is the later name of Tiberias in Palestine.
Geon water - ( muddy water), another name for the Nile.
Heraclea is an ancient city in Asia Minor on the Black Sea coast, the modern city of Ergeli in Turkey. According to legend, people from Heraclea founded Chersonesos in Crimea.
Hesperia is one of the ancient names of the Apennine Peninsula (Ausonia, Oenotria, Italica).
Hyrcania (Iranian Varcana - country of wolves) - an area southeast of the Caspian (Hircanian) Sea; It is separated from the rest of Iran by mountains with the Caspian Gate pass.
The Hyrcanian Sea is the Iranian name for the Caspian (Khvalynsky, Khvalissky) Sea.
Gniezno is an ancient Slavic city in western Poland; in the 10th century it was the capital of Mazovia (an early Polish state).
Holland is the former name of the Netherlands or Northern Gaul; modern - a province in the Netherlands.
Gotha is a historical city in Germany.
Gotland is an island and historical region in the Baltic Sea.
Gotfia is a historical region in the territory modern Crimea(received this name after the conquest by the Turks), formerly Tavria.
Grado is a historical Slavic city and island 15 km from Aquileia, in the Adriatic Sea. The seat of the metropolitan (or patriarch) was moved here after the attack by Attila's troops in 452.
Gran is the later name of the city of Ostrog in Hungary.
Greece - an ancient village in Attica (now Orop, Skala-Orop). Mythical and mythological country, traces of which are found throughout the territory of human settlement
Grimbergen - ancient Zelenograd - a city in Belgium near Brussels.
Dacia is a historical region that included present-day Romania, Transylvania and Bessarabia. It was originally inhabited by Gauls, Dacians and Getae. After being conquered by the Romans in 107 AD. was inhabited by pagan Jews and Jatts (gypsies) who received Roman citizenship (Roma). In the 3rd century it was occupied by the Goths, then the Alans, Avars, Hungarians and Slavs.
Dalmatia - (Dalmatia - country of sheep) is a historical region in Yugoslavia, along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, the western part of ancient Illyricum, inhabited by Serbs and Croats with a center in Delminium.
Denmark is a historical Slavic region, then a state that adopted Catholicism in 826.
Dvinsk was the former name of Borisoglebov (Daugavpils) until 1917.
Mesopotamia is the same as Mesopotomia (mixed offspring) or Mesopotamia.
Develt is the former name of the city of Zagora, located on Zagorje or Zagora (mountainside).
Devin - (Velegrad), capital of Rostislav, Prince. Moravsky.
Devon is a county in the south of Great Britain, near the English Channel.
Dedyakov - Alan medieval city 10-15 centuries at the village Elkhotovo in North Ossetia. Christian churches, mosques, public and residential buildings, burial grounds.
Deira (Dur) - a field near Babylon, a place of worship of the golden idol of the Sun god (dei Ra).
The Dzhurdzhani Sea is one of the names of the Caspian Sea.
Dinaburg is the German name for Daugavpils (Dvinsk).
Diocletia - (Dioklia, Cetinje), the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian, at the confluence of the Zeta River and the Morava. Later names - Duklja or Dukla, inhabited by Serbian tribes of Duklyans (Dulebs, Slavs). At the beginning of the 11th century. conquered by Byzantium and renamed Zeta (named after a tributary of the Moraca River). After it became part of the Serbian state of Nemanjic, then conquered by Venice, after falling under Turkish rule, the name Zeta was supplanted by Montenegro.
Dioskouriada - (in Greek - Dioscuria and Sebastos), an ancient city on the Black Sea coast (now at the bottom of Sukhumi Bay); during the Roman period it was renamed Sebastopolis.
Dobresol is the former name of the city of Halle (Saxony, Germany).
Dodona is a sanctuary of Zeus (Dodona) in Ancient Greece, located in Epirus near Mount Tomara (to ma Ra), now Olichka.
Dorilea is an ancient city in Phrygia Healthy, with palaces and healing springs. In the 10th-8th centuries. - a state in the vast territories of Asia Minor with the capital Gordion.
Doros (Mangup, Doro, Feodoro) is the main city of Gotthia, in Crimea, ruins 20 km from Sevastopol.
Dorosad is the name of an ancient city in the south of England-England (modern Dorset).
Dorostol - (Durostorum, Dristr, Dorostol, Silistria), ancient city, Roman fortress Durostorum in the NE. modern Bulgaria, which changed its name under Turkish rule to Silistria (Silistra), a port on the Danube.
Dregovichi is a historical locality in Dalmatia.
Drepan - (Elenopol) in Bithynia - historical region. Asia Minor; received its name from the Thracian tribes of the Bithynians.
Drogichin is an ancient Russian town in the Brest region, Belarus. Deployed a regiment to participate in the Battle of Grunwal.
Drozdyany is the former Slavic name of Dresden.
Oak is a village near Chalcedon in Bithynia with a royal palace surrounded by groves. Here, at the Council of Chalcedon in 403, John Chrysostom was condemned.
Dubania - (Dublin - known since the 3rd century) Slavic fortress built on the territory of Ireland in 836; the modern city of Bale Aha Cliach, the capital of Ireland.
Dubovik is the former name of the town of Dobin.
Dubossary - (Dubasari) is an ancient city on the territory of Moldova.
Dubrovitsa is an ancient Russian city (until 1940 - Dombrovitsa) in the Rivne region. Ukraine on the Goryn River.
Dubrovnik - (Latin name - Ragusa), an ancient Slavic city in Croatia on the shores of the Adriatic Sea; known since the 7th century; for a long time it was the center of the aristocratic Dubrovnik Republic.
Dover is an ancient city in England; shipbuilding center of pre-Roman Britannica.
Dullan (Dullan) is a city in Picardy (France).
Dura Europos is a city on the Middle Euphrates, founded at the end of the 4th century. BC. Seleucom Nicator as a military colony. It became the center of caravan routes connecting the Roman Empire. with the East. Repeatedly passed from hand to hand of the Parthians and the New Persian kingdom of the Sassanids. Destroyed in the 4th century.
Dymin is the former Slavic name of the city of Demmin.
Zagreb is the modern name of the city of Agram.
Zagros - (Zagorskaya Rus) a mountain system of parallel ridges in modern Iran, in the southwest of the Iranian Plateau. Length - 1600 km, width - 200-300 km. Mountain deserts, shrubs, copses.
Zadar is the oldest city in Croatia, a port on the Adriatic Sea. Remains of the Roman forum and triumphal arches; church-rotunda of St. Donatus (early 9th century); Romanesque basilicas (St. Stosie, 11th-12th centuries; St. Krševan, 12th century); fortress gate "Porta Terraferma" (16th century).
Zara is an ancient Slavic city on the shores of the Adriatic Sea that adopted Christianity in the 8th century.
Zverin is the former name of the Russian city; now Schwerin, the administrative center of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany.
Zvyagel is the name of an ancient city on the Sluch River until 1793; modern Novograd-Volynsky in Ukraine.
Zeta (Cetinja, ancient Dioklea, then Duklja) is the main city of Montenegro on the Zeta River.
Golden Sands (Zlatni Pyasytsi) is a climatic resort in Bulgaria, known since the 3rd century.
Solothurn is a historical region and canton in Switzerland.
Jabbok is a river, a left tributary of the Jordan River. The modern name is Ez-Zarqa.
Iberia is the ancient name of the Iberian Peninsula along the Iber River (Hiber, Ber), now the Ebro. It began to be called Spain after its conquest by Rome.
Ida is a mountain in Greece on the island of Crete.
Jebus - the area in which Jebus was located (Ie the message, renamed Jerusalem - “the throne of the god of the Rus” by David) before its capture by David. The former name was named after Jebus, the son of Canaan. The cunning invaders try not to call these lands by real names, so that it would be unclear to the modern reader what kind of people lived here before.
Yemen - (happy or God's chosen people); the name of a state in Africa after the adoption of Judaism.
Hierakon (Ie Ra Kon-Hierakonpolis, Jericho) is the name of the political center of Southern Egypt during the first dynasty.
Iliopolis (Heliopolis) - the city of the Sun, Beth-shemesh, He (the sun), Baal-bek (Bel God), the city of Baal; the most unique object ancient world with temple complexes made of incredibly large parts, weighing over a thousand tons.
Ilmen is the old name of the Laba (Elbe) tributary, the modern one is Ilmenau.
Imereti is a historical region in Georgia once inhabited by pagan Jews from Samaria. Its last king, Solomon, left for Turkey in 1783 and Imereti became part of Russia.
Irinople was the name of the city of Baghdad before the restoration of the old name in 762.
Ireland - (Iriland, Hyberia, “Island of Saints”), the Celtic population began to accept Christianity in the 5th century. through monasteries, submitted to Rome in the 12th century.
Istria is a peninsula in the northern Adriatic Sea, inhabited by Slavs since ancient times. At first it was part of the Roman Empire, then it belonged to Venice, and from the end of the 18th century it belonged to Austria.
Itil (Atel) - the ancient capital of Kozaria, was located near Astrakhan. According to it, it is customary to call the lower part of the Volga - Itil.
Iturea (Tyria, Turia) is a historical region in northern Palestine.
Colotis (Callatida) is a Dorian colony on the western shore of the Black Sea. According to legend, Heraclea was founded.
Camara is a city and fortress in Italy.
Campania is a historical region in southern Italy on the Tyrrhenian coast, which has long preserved Slavic traditions.
Candia is one of the old names (after the capture by the Arabs) of the island of Crete (formerly Lurker).
Canossos - Tuscan (Etruscan) castle. Here, in 1077, Henry 4th humbly asked for forgiveness from Pope Gregory 7th with the participation of the Tuscan margravess Matilda.
Canton is the former name of the city of Guangzhou in southern China.
Capernaum is an ancient city in Galilee, on the northwestern shore of Lake Tiberias. Glorified by frequent visits to Christ.
Cappadocia is a historical region in Asia Minor, on the border of Armenia and Cilicia. Adopted Christianity in the 3rd-4th centuries.
Karaman is a historical region and state in Asia Minor.
Karanovo is the remains of a Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement (6-3 thousand BC).
Carantania is a historical region, a state of Slovenes in the 7th-11th centuries in the Mura River basin and the upper reaches of the Drava River. Later names - Carinthia, Carniola, Carinthian Mark (Styria).
Karasev is the Old Russian name of the city of Belogorsk in Crimea; under Turkish rule - Karasubazar, Karasuvbazar.
Karenica is the former name of the city of Harz.
Karin (Kari) is the ancient name of the city, which became Theodosipolis or Theodosipolis (Divine City) under the Byzantines, and Kalikala under the Arabs, the modern Turkish city of Erzurum.
Karin (Erzurum, Feodosipol) is a city in Armenia, near the Euphrates.
Caria is a historical region in the southwestern part of Asia Minor.
Carmel (Carmel) is a mountain in Palestine (Israel) on the Mediterranean coast. Known for ancient pagan temples, from the 4th-5th centuries. became a place of solitude for Jewish hermits. In the Skhul and Tabun caves along with Mousterian stones. tools discovered the remains of fossil people of the Neanderthal European type, who had many similarities with modern humans. Antiquity - 45-40 thousand years.
Catalonia (Catalan) is a historical region in Spain with the capital Barcelona.
Kafa (Kaffa) - the name of the city of Feodosia in Crimea since the 13th century; renamed in 1783. Founded in the 6th century. BC. unknown people, sometimes they write that they were Greeks.
Kakheti is a historical region of Georgia, conquered by King Bagrat in the 11th century. On old maps it is simply Khetia, part of Koloheti, which became Colchidon and Colchis.
Kezlev (Kozlov) is the Slavic name of the city of Evpatoria.
Cologne is the later name of an ancient Slavic city (Appian Colonia-Colonia-Cologne).
Celtiberia is a historical region in the territory of modern Spain; was inhabited by Celtiberians (Celts and Iberians).
Kemeri - (until 1917 - Kemmern, previously - Kem Meri) balneological mud resort in Latvia (city of Jurmala).
Kemi is an ancient city in Finland at the confluence of the river. Kemi-Joki to the Gulf of Bothnia; the time of its founding is unknown.
Kem - (Ta Kemi, Kemi) the ancient name of a state in northern Africa; in the 7th century renamed Misr; modern name Gumkhurdiyya Misr al-Arabi; In our country, the Jewish name has taken root - Egypt.
Kem is an ancient city of Northern Pomerania on the river. Kem at its confluence with the White Sea; founding time unknown; It has been known in Novgorod since the 12th century, and in Moscow since the 15th century.
Kerkinitida - one of the ancient ports western Crimea, on the site of modern Evpatoria.
Cimmeric is an ancient city of the 5th century. BC - 3rd century AD on the southern coast of the Kerch Peninsula in Crimea, which gave the name to the people - the Cimmerians.
Cyrenaica (Kyrenia) is a historical region in western Egypt, on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
Clusium is an ancient Etruscan city in the territory of modern Italy (now Chiusi).
Kobrin is a city in the Brest region. Belarus; founded by Russian princes in the 11th century; known from chronicles from the 13th century.
Kovno is the former name of the ancient Russian city (since 1917 - Kaunas); founded at the beginning of the 11th century.
Kozlov is the Slavic name of the city of Evpatoria in Crimea before Turkish rule.
Kola (Kolo) is a medieval city on the shores of the Kola Bay, at the confluence of the Kolo and Tuloma rivers. Known since the 13th century; who founded it and when is unknown.
Kolgon is a modern Golgong, a city in India on the Ganges River.
Kolobreg is the former name of the city of Kolberg.
Colony - (Kolo), the ancient name of the city of Cologne.
Colossi (Khona, Gona) is an ancient city in Phrygia on the Lykos River.
Kolokhetia (Colkhida - in Greek) is a historical region in Western Georgia. In the 13th-7th centuries. BC. a union of tribes of “blond beasts”, defined by archaeologists as the Colchis culture of agricultural tribes, accompanied by images of animals and swastika ornaments, analogues of the Northern Black Sea region. Currently inhabited by Mingrelians, Georgian Jews.
Kolyvan is the former name of the ancient Slavic city (in Lithuanian - Lindanis). In 1219-1917 the official name was Revel, then from 1917 - Tallinn.
Constantinople was the name in the Middle Ages of Perun-grad, Tsar-grad, Byzant, modern Istanbul (Turkey).
Konstanz is a city at the exit of the Rhine from Lake Constance.
Kon-Kamen (Konii Ostrov) is an ancient sanctuary of the Korels on Konevsky (Konevsky) Island.
Kopai Basin - Kopai Basin, an intermountain depression in Central Greece, along the Kefis River. In the past it was filled by Lake Kopaiskoe, now drained.
Koporye is an ancient Russian city and fortress that defended the Novgorod land from the Swedes; now a village in the Leningrad region. with the remains of the fortress walls.
Corbeil is a city in Ile-de-France.
Korela - the name of the city of Priozersk, Leningrad region until 1611. Under Peter 1 - Kekzholmts.
Corinth is an ancient city in Greece near the Isthmus of Corinth, connecting Central Greece and the Peloponnese Peninsula. Founded by the Dorians (Daarians) in the 10th century. BC. as the main city of Achaea; ruins near modern Corinth (Greece).
Korsun is the Old Russian name for Chersonese, an ancient polis founded in the 5th century. BC. Ruins near Sevastopol.
Kortsira is an ancient Slavic name for the modern Greek island Kerkyra (Corfu - in Italian).
Korchev - a Slavic city in Crimea during the Middle Ages; now - Kerch.
Kosovo Polje - (Kosovo Polje), an area in Dalmatia (Serbia), where in 1389 the Turks defeated the Serbs and Bulgarians (according to the modern version, Serbian-Bosnian troops under the command of Prince Lazar).
Red is the name of a former Slavic city on the territory of Germany; modern - Rothenburg.
Krevo is an ancient city with a fortress and a castle on the territory of Belarus; known for the Union of Krevo - an agreement on a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Russia and Lithuania and Poland.
Kremenets is an ancient city on the territory of modern. Ukraine; known from chronicles since 1226.
Khreshchatyk is the main street of Kyiv, located on the site of the stream in which the sons of Vladimir and noble Kyivians were baptized.
Crete is the modern name of the Slavic island Skryten (Kryt), under Muslims - Candia from the capital city of Kandax.
Krichev is an ancient Russian city on the Sozh River, territory of Belarus, known from chronicles from the 12th century.
Croatia is the old name of Croatia.
Cruachan is a county in Scotland.
Kruszewice is an ancient Polish capital (8th-9th centuries).
Crimea is the modern name of the island and state with the former name of Taurida, Tauride Chersonese, Greater Chersonese, Gotthia, Ostrogothia.
Courland is the historical region of Kurzeme in the western part of Latvia (Latgale; gal in Roman - rooster, chicken. Turkic-Slavic kuren and vezha - house, dwelling.). In the 13th century it was captured by the Crusaders; from 1561 - the Duchy of Courland and the Pilten region, in 1695-1917 - the Courland province as part of Russia.
Laba is the old Slavic name for the Elbe River; used in Czechoslovakia; Laba is a river in Russia in the North Caucasus, a left tributary of the Kuban.
Ladoga is an ancient Russian city in the Slovenian land (Novgorod); mentioned in chronicles from the 8th century; now s. Staraya Ladoga in the Leningrad region.
Ladon is a river in Greece on the Peloponnese Peninsula.
Laconia is a historical region in Greece on the Peloponnese Peninsula.
Lan (Doe) is a land and a city in France.
Languedoc is a province in France.
Langton is a bay of the Arctic Ocean in northern Canada.
Landes is a region in southwestern France.
Lagny is a land and city in Ile-de-France.
Lapland is a historical region, the territory of Finland, Sweden, Norway; The population is Lapps.
Latgale is a historical region in the Baltic states on the territory of modern Latvia.
Lebedia is a historical region on the territory of modern Ukraine, which was occupied or destroyed by the Magyars (Huns) during their movement to the west. The location was determined by historians - the area of ​​​​the city of Lebedyan (Lipetsk region) or Lebedin (Sumy region).
Lebed is a river in Altai, a tributary of the Biya, Ob basin.
Lenchin is the modern name Lenzen.
Livonia - Baltic lands captured by the German Livonian Order.
Lipsk is the old name of a Slavic city on the territory of Germany; now Leipzig in Saxony.
Lithuania - White Rus', population - Lithuania, Litvins; in later documents - the state (principality) - Lithuania.
Lausanne is a city in Savoy, from the 16th century. - in Switzerland, on the shores of Lake Geneva.
Longobardia is a historical region in northern Italy, founded in the 3rd century. from R.H. Longobards (long-bearded), immigrants from the territory of modern Germany; capital Mediolan (middle land, now Milan). Modern Lombardy in Italy.
Ltava - (Litava) the name of the city of Poltava until 1430.
Lugdunum - (Lugdon) the ancient name of a Gallic city at the confluence of the Rhone and Saone rivers; modern Lyon in France.
Lusatia is a historical region on the territory of modern Germany (named after the modern region of Lusatia), known since the 13th century. BC. Main population: Lusatians, Lusatian Sorbs (Serbs), Vends (Vends). They were conquered by the Arabian Germans under Otto 1, but retained their language, which belongs to the West Slavic languages.
Lusitania (Lusitania, Rusitania) - the name of the Iberian Peninsula before the conquest by Rome and renaming to Spain.
Lubeck is a city in the north of Germany, a port on the Baltic Sea.
Lyubech is an ancient Russian city on the left bank of the Dnieper. It was first mentioned in chronicles in 882. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes took place in Lyubech.
Lubich is the former name of a Slavic city (modern Lübeck in Germany).
Lublin is a city in eastern Poland, known since the 10th century; The Union of Lublin between Lithuania and Poland was concluded here.
Lutetia is the ancient city of the Parisians and Luticians on the island of Sich (Site) at the confluence of the rivers; in the 3rd century after being captured by the Romans, it was renamed Parisii; modern name - Paris.
Lucerne is a city in Switzerland, on Lake Firwaldstät.
Lucin is the official name of the city of Ludza in Latvia until 1917.
Magdeburg is an ancient Slavic city of Velehrad in Prussian Saxony; center of Saxony-Anhalt in modern times. Deutschland. Known since 805, since 968 - the center of the archbishopric.
Mazovia is a historical region of Poland, in the middle reaches of the Vistula and the lower reaches of the Narev and Bug; from the 9th century - principality; from the 13th century it was divided into appanage principalities and gradually began to fall under the authority of the Polish kings; finally in Poland from 1526.
Macedonia is a historical region on the Balkan Peninsula in the adjacent regions of Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria.
Malin - 1. The ancient name of a Slavic city in Belgium (modern Mechelen), famous for its bell (“raspberry”) ringing. 2. City in Ukraine.
Marakanda is the ancient capital of Sogdiana; modern - Samarkand.
Mariupol is a city on the Sea of ​​Azov; in 1778, the tsarist government settled here the brought Greeks, whom the Tatars did not want to let into Crimea.
Marcomanni are border residents, the same as Ukrainians.
Mglin - (Meglin, Moglena), a mountain fortress and city in W. Macedonia, northwest of Vodena (Edessa. Edessa).
Megara is the center of the Megarid region in Ancient Greece, on the Isthmus of Corinth.
Medina is the modern name of the ancient city of Yathrib on the Arabian Peninsula.
Bear Lake - (Great Bear Lake), in northwestern Canada, in the Mackenzie River basin.
Mediolan - (middle land), the former Slavic name of Milan and surrounding lands.
Medniki is the former name of the Russian city, modern. Medininkai, Lithuania.
Melite is the ancient name of Malta.
Memel (Memelburg) is the official name of Klaipeda (Lithuania) until 1923.
Menesk is the old name of the Belarusian city of Minsk; known from chronicles since 1067.
Meotida - (Meotida - land of the Meotians) Roman name for the coast of the Sea of ​​​​Azov (Meotian Lake or Meotian swamp); They also called the inhabitants of the coast Meotians, and thus a new nationality appeared.
Merv is an ancient city, the center of the Merv oasis (modern Mary in Turkmenistan).
Merv oasis is a historical region in the south of modern. Turkmenistan; from the 3rd century it was part of Khorasan.
Meridovo Lake - it was dug in the 15th century. BC King Merid to collect water supplies from the Nile.
Meroe is an ancient country west of the Arabian Gulf. According to legend, it was ruled by queens (Sheba, Kandakia).
Dead Sea - (Salt, Asphalt, Lotovo) an endorheic salt lake in the Middle East. Located 395 m below Mediterranean Sea level. The most low point peace.
MESOPOTAMIA - (correctly - Senaar, Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, mixed offspring) - a historical region in the Middle East, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, one of the centers of ancient civilization, now in Iraq.
Messinia is a historical region of Ancient Greece, in the southwest of the Peloponnese peninsula, inhabited in ancient times by the Leleg tribe, which had its capital at Pylos; later it was settled by immigrants from Palestine Messenia; considered the first Jewish (Greek) colony in the Balkans.
Messina is the ancient city of Zankle (before the 3rd-4th centuries) in Sicily, the first Greek colonists came here after the defeat of the state of Northern Israel (Samaria) by Assyria or the Scythians around 730 BC.
Mechelen (Mechelan, Malin) is the ancient city of Malin in Belgium on the Dyle River, famous for its ringing bells(raspberry ringing).
Mechlin is the former name of Mecklenburg.
Media is a historical region in the northwestern part of the Iranian Plateau. 13th-7th centuries BC. - union of tribes; in the 7th-6th centuries. - kingdom, flourished under Kiaxares (King Kiak) on the territory of Iran and Southern Azerbaijan.
Moisia is a historical region in the northwest of Asia Minor, on the site of Troy. Also an area occupied by Serbs and Croats in the 19th century.
Miquiline is the former name of Mecklenburg.
Mytilene - (Mytilene) an ancient city on the island. Lesvos.
Mishnah is the former name of the city of Meissen.
Morava - (blue) right tributary of the Danube, consisting of the Serbian and Bulgarian Morava.
Moravia is a historical region along the Oder and Morava.
Morea is a historical region in the territory of modern Greece.
Mosul is a historical region founded by the Ghuz (Torks - worshipers of Thor) of Central Asia, who converted to Islam as interpreted by the commander and emir of Mosul - Islam on the territory of modern Iraq. After this, the Guz began to be called Mosulmans (modern Muslims) or Torkmens (due to the fact that part of the people continued to worship the Thor).
Mstislavl is an ancient city in Belarus on the Vihra River; known from chronicles from 1156.
Murmansk is the same as the Norman coast, that is, the northern coast of Russia, adjacent to Norway.
Murom is an ancient Russian city, the capital of the Murom - Finno-Ugric tribes who lived in the upper reaches of the Oka River from the 1st millennium BC; known from Christian chronicles since 862; since 1097 the center of the Murom-Ryazan principality; from the middle of the 12th century. until 15 - the center of the Murom principality.
Mutyanskaya land is the old name of Moldova.
Nazareth is a mythological city in lower Galilee (there was no such city, but there was Nazarene land), here Jesus lived until he was 30 years old; the city is known as the center of the Nazarite heresy, which Jesus also preached.
Narva is a city and fortress in Estonia on the Narva River; known in Russian chronicles since 1171 under the name Rugodiv (Rusodiv).
Naples - Palestine Naples, the same as Nabluz (Nablus) near ancient Shechem; Italian Naples - ancient Parthenon; Naples in Macedonia became part of Philippi, founded by Philip 11; Scythian Naples (Simferopol) 3rd century. BC - 3rd century from R.H. - the capital of the Scythian state in Crimea.
The German Sea is the name of the Baltic Sea found in foreign literature at the time of the seizure of lands by Catholic orders.
Nesvizh is an ancient city on the territory of Belarus; known from chronicles from the 13th century and the Radziwill Castle.
Nicaea is a city in Bithynia, on the shores of Lake Ascan, the capital of the Nicaean Empire and the first capital of the Ottomans before they captured Constantinople.
Nicomedia is a city in Bithynia, near the Sea of ​​Marmara, the capital of the Eastern Empire to Constantinople.
Nikopol - (Nikup), Roman city 2-7 centuries AD. in the province of Lower Moesia to the east of the modern city of Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria).
The Nile is the longest river in Africa, formed by the confluence of the White and Blue Nile rivers. Actually, the Nile is Blue; It has had this name since time immemorial; it got its name from an unknown fair-haired and white-skinned people who lived here several thousand years ago.
Nilgiris - mountain range Blue Mountains in southern India; got their name from an unknown tall, fair-haired people who lived here several thousand years ago.
Nineveh is an ancient city in the Middle East, the capital of Assyria (in the territory of modern Iraq, near Mosul).
Novgorod is an ancient Russian city on the Volkhov River, 6 km from Lake Ilmen. According to church chronicles, it has been known since 859; from the Book of Vles: “In the summer of 3113 (2395 BC), the Grand Duke of Sloven built a city and named it after his name Slovensk, which is now called Veliky Novgorod, from the mouth of the great lake Ilmer along the Volkhov river half a third mile.”
Novgorodok is the name of a Russian fortress on the territory of modern Estonia before it was renamed Vastselina.
Novgorod-Seversky is an ancient Russian city on the Desna River, in the Chernigov region. Ukraine, known since the 10th century.
Novgorod land is a historical region in the northwest and north of Rus' in the 9th-15th centuries; included, in addition to the Novgorod Republic and its possessions up to White Sea and Sev. Trans-Urals (Karelia, Tersky Coast, Zavolochye, Pechora, Yugra), from the end of the 15th century - only the lands adjacent to Novgorod.
The Novgorod Republic is a rooted name in Russian literature for the state in Northwestern and Northern Rus' in 1136-1478. with the capital - Novgorod. Annexed to Muscovy as a result of Ivan's campaigns 111.
Novogrudok is an ancient city in Belarus, known since 1116.
Novosil is an ancient city in the Oryol region. on the river Zusha; known since 1155; at the beginning of the 14th century. - the center of the Novosilsk principality.
Novotroitsk settlement - the remains of a fortified Slavic city of the 8th-9th centuries. at the village Novotroitskoye, Sumy region. Ukraine.
Novocherkassk is a city in the Rostov region; the former capital (since 1805) of the Land of the Don Army; the capital of the world Cossacks.
Noricum is a historical region, a mountainous country bordering Italy and Pannonia; The main population were Celts. In 16-13 years. BC. was conquered by Rome and became an imperial province.
Normandy is a historical region and duchy in northwestern France.
Oxus is the ancient name of the Amu Darya river; before the Arab conquest.
Oldenburg is the modern name of the Slavic city of Stargrad before its capture by the Germans.
Olbia is the economic capital of the Scythians, located on the right bank of the Dnieper-Bug estuary.
Orany is the former name (until 1917) of the city of Varena in Lithuania.
Oreshek - the name of the Russian fortress and city in 1323-1611; in 1611-1702 after the capture by the Swedes - Noteburg; since 1702, Shlisselburg has been part of Russia.
Or-Kapu (Perekop) is a Turkish fortress on the Perekop Isthmus.
Ostia (Euthia) - (in Latin - river mouth) an ancient city in Italy at the mouth of the Tiber, not far from Rome.
Ostrogom is the former name of the city of Gran in Hungary.
Pavia is a city in Lombardy (Italy) on the river. Ticino; since 568 - the capital of Longobardia.
Palestine is a historical region in the Middle East, east of the Mediterranean Sea, one of the oldest centers of Russian civilization. Before colonization by Jews under the leadership of Solomon, it had one of the names of Palena Stan (hot place).
Palmyra - (Fadmor, City of Palms), an ancient city in Syria, greatest prosperity in the 1st-3rd centuries. AD; temples of Baal, sanctuaries of Bel, so-called. Diocletian's camp.
Pamphylia is a historical region in the south of Asia Minor; first - a union of tribes, from the 6th century. BC. in the kingdom of the Achaemenids, Alexander the Great, Ptolemies, Seleucids, Pergamon, together with which after 133 BC. became a possession of Rome; in 43 AD Lycia and Pamphylia made up Rome. province.
Pannonia - historical region (ancient Paeonia), Roman province; occupied part of the territory of modern Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Austria.
The Roman Pantheon is a pagan temple depicting all the gods of the Roman Empire; in 607, Pope Boniface IV converted it into the Church of All Saints.
Panticapaeum (Panticapaeum) - an ancient city in Crimea (modern Kerch) in the 6th century BC - 4th century. AD; then the Slavic city of Korchev.
The Papal States was a theocratic state that existed from 756 to 1870. on the Apennine Peninsula with its capital in Rome. Led by the Pope.
Parthia is a historical region southeast of the Caspian Sea. Known since 1 thousand BC; in 250 BC-224 AD - Parthian kingdom (from Mesopotamia to the Indus). In 224 it became part of the Sassanid state.
Passau is a city in Bavaria, the center of Catholic expansion into Slavic lands.
Patus is an ancient city on the site of modern Gelendzhik.
Paphlagonia is a historical region in the center of Asia Minor.
Pella is an ancient city in Perea (Palestine), opposite Scythopolis; Jews left here in 66 AD. who did not want to participate in the war with Rome.
The First Bulgarian Kingdom was a Slavic-Bulgarian state in 681-1018. on the northern Balkan Peninsula.
Mother See - an honorary title for Moscow after the capital was moved to St. Petersburg.
Pergamum is a city and state in Asia Minor, in Mysia. Founded in the 12th century. BC. Lost his independence due to his will in 133 BC. King Attalus III. In its place, the Romans established the province of Asia. The city gave its name to parchment, where it was first invented; famous for its library, honey. school, the Pergamon altar of Zeus.
Pereshen - the ancient capital of the streets (Uglichs, Budzhaks) on the Dniester (modern village of Peresechina in Moldova). The city was taken and destroyed by the Kyiv governor Sveneld in 939-940. Then, after the expulsion of the Uglich and Tivertsi people, the Pechenegs, who converted to Christianity, were invited here.
Perea is the Greek name for a part of Palestine, east of Irdan.
Pereyaslavl the Great (Preslava, Markianopol, Megalopolis) is an ancient Slavic city, located in the Balkan Mountains near Shumla.
Pereyaslavl small - (Preslav) an ancient Slavic city, the former capital (893-971) of the First Bulgarian and Western. Bulgarian Kingdom; for some time it was owned by the Kiev prince Svyatoslav. Ruins near the modern city of Preslav.
Pereyaslavl Russky (Pereslav) is an ancient Russian city, known since 906; capital of the Pereyaslav Principality in the 11th-13th centuries; modern city of Pereyaslavl-Khmelnitsky.
Pereyaslavl Ryazan is an ancient Russian city, founded in 1095 by Prince. Yaroslav Svyatoslavich. From the middle of the 13th century. - the capital of the Ryazan principality; in 1778 it was renamed Ryazan.
Pereyaslavl - until the 15th century. Pereslavl, then - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky; in 1175-1302 - the center of the appanage Pereyaslav principality of the great Vladimir-Suzdal principality; from the 14th century as part of the Moscow Principality.
Perm - (ancient Biarmia), the ancient Russian name of the historical region from the Ural Mountains to the river. Pechora, Kama and Volga; inhabited by the Komi (Kama) people. This territory was annexed to the Moscow State in 1478. Perm the Great is the territory of modern times. Komi-Permyak region; Perm Malaya (Old, Vychegda) - ter. modern rep. Komi.
Persida - (Pars, Parsia, Barsia), - a historical region on the territory of modern Iran; modern - Farce.
Persia is a state in Asia (modern name Iran).
Perusia (Perusia) - an ancient Etruscan city in the territory of modern Italy (now Perugia - former city rugov; Perugia sounds in Russia).
Petra is an ancient city in Jordan.
Petra Arabia is the territory adjacent to the city of Petra.
Pitiunt is an ancient city; modern Pitsunda in Abkhazia.
Pleskov is the old name of the city of Pskov.
Pleskov (Pliskov) is the ancient name of the Bulgarian capital from 640 - Pliski.
Polabian Rus' is a state that existed on the territory of modern Germany and western Poland until the end of the 11th century.
Polotsk - (Polota) is the oldest Russian city on the Polota River, known from chronicles since 864 (currently in the Vitebsk region of White Rus').
Pomerania is the modern name of the historical Slavic region of Pomerania on the Baltic Sea coast with the center of Szczecin.
Pomerania is a historical region on the northern Baltic coast of Poland. Consists of two parts: Western and Eastern (Gdańsk). West Side, captured by Mediterranean Germans, became a duchy and entered the German Confederation in 1170.
Northern Pomorie received its historical name in the 15th-17th centuries. (White Sea coast from the city of Kem to the city of Onega - Pomeranian coast) or a wider area from Obonezhye to the North. The Urals, including Korelia, Dvina, Vazhskaya, Sysolskaya, Vyatka, Perm lands, Posukhonye, ​​Belozersky and Pechersky territories (Pomeranian cities). Until the 12th century - possession of the Novgorod Republic; by the beginning of the 16th century. - in the Moscow state.
The Kingdom of Pontus is a state on the southeastern shore (Ponte) of the Black Sea. Existed from 301 to 64. BC.
Pontus Euxine is the ancient Greek name for the southern coast of the Black Sea in Asia Minor, on the territory of which the Kingdom of Pontus was created in 301 BC.
The Ponto-Aral Sea is a hypothetical water basin that in the past united the Black, Caspian and Aral seas.
Portugal is an ancient historical region (Coastal Gaul).
Portusallia is the old name of Portugal.
Beautiful Port is the former Slavic name of the Chersonesos port on the western coast of Crimea, on the site of the modern city of Chernomorsk (under the Turks, Ak-Mosque).
Pressburg is the German name for Bratislava (Pizon, Pizon).
Prilivets is the former name of the city of Prillwitz in Germany.
Propontis is the ancient Greek name for the Sea of ​​Marmara (lying between the Pontic shores - Pontus Euxine and Helios Pontus).
Ra is the ancient name of the river, which over time began to be called the Big Road (Bol Ga), and then turned into the Volga.
Ravenna (Plain) is a Gallic city in Northern Italy in a low, marshy plain. From the 5th century it was the residence of Western Roman emperors, then Ostrogothic kings.
Ragusa is the former name of present-day Dubrovnik on the Adriatic Sea.
Ragi is the capital of Great Media, south of the Caspian Sea.
Razgrad is an ancient and modern city in Bulgaria; formerly the Roman city of Abritus.
Hrazdan is the modern name of the river in Armenia; the former - Zanga.
Raipur is a city in India, in the north of the Deccan Plateau.
Rakobor - (Rakovor) the former name of the Russian city from the 13th century. (modern Rakvere in Estonia, until 1917 - Wesenberg).
Ras (Rasa) is an ancient city in Serbia on the banks of the Raska (Raska) river, a tributary of the Ibra. Stefan Nemanja was baptized here in 1143.
Ratibor is the former Slavic name of the city of Ratzenburg.
Revel is the former name of the capital of the state of Rävala in northern Estonia. In the 13th century it was captured by the Danish crusaders.
Riphean Mountains - presumably the Urals.
Rod as - (Rod Asov) the old name of the island of Rhodes; in the Aegean Sea off the coast of Asia Minor.
Roden is an ancient Russian city of blacksmiths, located at the confluence of the river. Ros in Dnepr-Slavutich.
Rhombites - Bolshoy and Maly - now the Beisug and Yeisk estuaries of the Azov Sea.
Rossiena was the official name from 1253 to 1917 of the modern Lithuanian city of Raseiniai.
Rossano is the main city of Calabria, in southern Italy.
Rostock is a former Slavic city in Germany.
Rothenburg is a city in the south of Germany, the former Slavic city of Red.
Rugodiv is an old Russian city captured by the Crusaders and renamed Narva.
Rusafa is the residence of the Baghdad caliphs.
Ruse is a city in Bulgaria, near which there are the remains of the city of Cherven with rock churches.
Rusne is a city in Lithuania on the river. Nemunas.
Ruspe is an ancient city founded by the Vandals (Goths) in northwest Africa.
Russik is a monastery founded by Russians on Mount Athos.
Roussillon - 1. Historical region in southern France. 2. Historical region in the Pyrenees.
Rävala is a historical region in the north of modern Estonia with the capital Revel.
Sals (Salsk) is a city in Roussillon.
Samaria - (Sebastia - after restoration by Herod) an ancient city in Palestine, which for many years was the capital of the pagan Jewish state. The modern name is Sebastia.
Samarra - the capital of the Caliphate after the capital was transferred from Baghdad in 836, is located 110 km from Baghdad up the Tigris.
Samkerts is the name of Taman during the Khazar Kaganate period.
Samothrace - on modern maps of Samothrace, an island in the north of the Aegean Sea as part of Greece.
Barn - ( royal palace), the capital of the Mongol khans on the banks of the Akhtuba River; founded by Batu in the 13th century.
Sardika - (Sredets, Sofia, Ulpia, Triaditsa) are the former names of the Bulgarian capital Sofia.
Sardinia is a large island in the Mediterranean Sea. The first cities were built here by the Phoenicians (presumably).
Sardis - (Sardim) - the ancient capital of Lydia under Croesus.
Sarkel - (Royal Shield) is the second name of the border city of the Don Rus, Belaya Vezha.
Sebastia (Sebastia) is the name of the restored capital of the pagan Jews of Samaria under Herod the Great. From here - Sevastipol (Sevastopol).
Sebastia in Armenia is a city built by settlers from Samaria-Sebastia, in which 40 Christians were executed in 320 AD.
Sevastopol is the modern name of the Turkish city of Akhtiar, renamed in honor of the Jewish city of Sebastia by “Greek” settlers.
Semigallia is a historical region between Poland and Courland, which was captured and converted to Christianity in 1218 by the Bearers of the Sword.
Semikarakory is a city in the Rostov region, ancient Karakorum (founded by Khan Karakorum in 808) in the European part of the Golden Horde.
New Serbia is a territory inhabited by Serbs along the river. Bugu, immigrants from Austria in 1749.
Cerdagne (Cerdan) is a historical region in the Eastern Pyrenees.
Sephoris - (Diokesarea, Kitron) - the main city of Galilee during the time of I. Christ.
Sekheriy - the Black Sea channel of the Kuban.
Silesia is a historical region in Europe, in the upper part of the Odra River basin (modern territory of Poland and the Czech Republic).
Silistria - (Dorostol, Derstre) ancient Bulgarian fortress on the Danube.
Singidon - (Upper Misia), the ancient name of the capital of Serbia, Belgrade.
Sindskaya harbor is one of the former names of Anapa.
Syracuse is an ancient city and capital founded in 734 BC. in Sicily.
Shechem (Sikem, Sikar, Flavia-Naples) - the former capital of the main mass of Jews that broke away from Judea before being transferred to Samaria; now - the city of Nabluz (Navluz).
Scythopolis (Bethsan) is an ancient city in Palestine.
Sklavnia is one of the Slavic states of the Baltic Sea coast of the 8th century. on the territory of modern Deutschland; neighboring - Wiltse.
Scrivia is a winding river in Italy.
Slavonia is a historical region in northern Yugoslavia, between the Sava and Drava rivers, part of ancient Pannonia.
Slavutich is the Slavic name of the Dnieper.
Smyrna - the ancient city of Lydia in Asia Minor; founded in the 2nd millennium BC
Sogdiana is a historical region of Asia in the northeast. from Persian Gulf, in the basin of the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya rivers, one of the most ancient centers of civilization. Main city from 329 BC - Marakanda (now Samarkand).
Thessaloniki - (Thessalonica), ancient city and capital of Thessaly; now - Thessaloniki.
Sparta is an ancient Greek state with a center of the same name in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula.
La Spezia is an ancient and modern city and port in Italy, famous for the herb (spices) trade.
Splet (Spalatro) - Ancient city of Dalmatia; modern - Split.
Sredets - (Sardica, Ulpia, Triaditsa) is the ancient Slavic name of the Bulgarian capital Sofia.
Srem - (Sirmium), a city in Pannonia on the Sava River, the capital of the Gepids; in the 3rd-5th centuries. - the capital of the Roman Caesar.
Stargrad is the former name of a Slavic city; now - Oldenburg in Germany.
Stargrad is the former name of the city of Altenburg (modern Stralsund).
Starodub is a city from the 11th century on the territory of the Bryansk region, on the Babinets River; the center of the appanage principality, sent a regiment to participate in the Battle of Grunwal.
Starodubye is a settlement founded in 1690 in the Chernigov region. fugitive Old Believers from Moscow fleeing executions.
Walls - port on the west bank ancient Crimea. The exact location has not been established.
The Stodar state is the name of the Lutich principality in the 8th century. in the "Great Chronicle".
Stradonitsa is an ancient Celtic settlement dating back to 1 thousand BC. near the village of the same name in the Czech Republic.
Strasbourg is a city in eastern France on the Ile River at its confluence with the Rhine (German name Strasbourg). The name comes from "guard" and "city" - a border town.
Stridon is an ancient city in Dalmatia at the confluence of three rivers.
Strymon is the Greek name for the Struma River, which flows mainly in Bulgaria and flows into the Aegean Sea.
Suva - (Owl, Soval Syria, Kelesyria), the area between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.
Sugdey (Sugdeya, Surozh) - an ancient Slavic city in Crimea, the center of Surozh Rus'; modern Sudak.
Sudzhuk-Kale is the former name of Novorossiysk.
The Sea of ​​Surozh is the name of the Sea of ​​Azov from Surozh Rus and the city of Surozh (Pike perch).
Taurus (Toros) - mountains in southern Turkey.
Tavrida - (Gothia) Crimea.
Tavrika - in ancient times (9th century BC - 4th century AD) was called South part Crimea, inhabited by the Tauri, Tauro-Scythians.
Tavria - the name of the Crimean peninsula and the south of Ukraine (Northern T.) in the 19th - early. 20th centuries
Tauromen is an ancient city in Sicily.
Taman - Tmutorokan, Tamatarkha, Matarkha, Matrika, Matrakha, Maritandis, Tom, Tom Tarkhan, Samkerts, Sharukan. As the administrative territory of the entire peninsula: White Kumania, Taman.
Tana is an ancient city on the left bank of the Don River near the city of Azov and the Don River itself.
Tanais is an ancient city (3rd century BC - 5th century AD) at the mouth of the river. Don and the river itself.
Tarquinii - an ancient Etruscan city famous for the royal family of the Taquinii (Tarkh Veneev); now Tarquinia in Italy.
Tarsus - (Afar), the main city in Cilicia.
Tver is a city in Russia; founded in 1209 by Slavs who came from southern Europe.
Ternov (Tarnov) - the ancient Bulgarian capital on the Yantra River; modern Veliko Tarnovo.
Tiberias is a historical province and ancient city on the southwestern shores of Lake Tiberias (Genisaret) in Palestine, the main city of the lower Galilee (Palestine Gaul); the population was called “Tivevertsy”, then “Nazarenes”; Jesus and all his apostles came from here.
Tiberiopolis is an ancient Slavic city in Western Macedonia (later names - Wieliczka, Strumnica); founded by refugees from Palestine.
Tire is a coastal city-state in Phenicia; founded in 4 thousand BC; modern Sur in Lebanon.
Tyre (Thira, Santorini) is a group of volcanic islands in the Aegean Sea with the port of Thira.
Tire (Tira, Tiras) is an ancient city (6th century BC - 3rd century AD) on the banks of the Dniester estuary, near the city of Belgorod-Dniester.
Tiryns is one of the oldest centers of Mycenaean culture in Argolis, in the Peloponnese. The first settlement dates back to the Neolithic period. Heyday - by the 14th-13th centuries. BC. During excavations, tablets with Linear writing were found.
Tyrol is a historical region in Europe, in the Alps.
The Tyrrhenian Sea is the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. Named in time immemorial from the Tyrrhenian people (who came from Tire and founded all the cities with similar names).
Tirza (Tiverza, Ferza, Fersa) is the capital of the Kingdom of Israel to Samaria.
Tomi (Tom, Tomy, Ovidiopol) - a city at the mouth of the Danube, first a Dorian colony; later the episcopal city of Scythia Minor in the 2nd-5th centuries. AD; modern city of Constanta.
Tom is one of the former names of Taman.
Tor is the former name of the city of Slavyansk in Ukraine (renamed under Catherine 11) in honor of the 9th Slavic Regiment, which guarded A.V. Suvorov.
Torquay is the former name of the Russian city (modern since 1917 - Trakai).
Transylvania - (Semigradye) historical region in Romania; formerly part of Hungary.
Transoxiana - (the land beyond the Oxus - the early name of the Amu Darya), a historical region in Central Asia.
Troas is a historical region in Moesia, in Asia Minor.
Tours is a city in France, the main city of the historical region of Touraine.
Tura - 1. River in the West. Siberia; 2. Capital of Evenki Autonomous Okrug.
The Turanian Lowland is a plain in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.
Turdetania is a historical region in the territory of modern Andalusia.
Touraine (Touraine) is a historical region in France in the Loire basin; includes dep. Indre and Loire.
Touraine is the former name of Turin (Italy).
Turinsk is a city in Sverdlovsk region(until 1600 - Epanchin).
Tysmenitsa is an ancient Russian city in Ukraine, not far from Ivano-Frankivsk; known from chronicles from 1143.
Ubii is the capital city of the Germanic tribe of Ubii (from 50 BC - Agrippa's colony, then Colonia, the modern city of Cologne).
Ugarit - city-state 2 thousand BC. in the territory of Phenicia.
Ugric Rus' (Hungarian Rus') is a historical region that received its name even before the arrival of the Hungarians.
Ugrovesk is an ancient Slavic city at the confluence of the Uger and the Western Bug, one of the most ancient Russian cities.
Umbria is a historical region in Italy; its borders were in the north of the river. Rubicon, in the west - the river. Tiber, in the northeast - the coast of the Adriatic Sea, and in the south and east - the river. Nar. During the era of Etruscan colonization, many cities were built on the lands of Umbria.
Ungvar has been the name of the city of Uzhgorod since the 11th century. before 1918; known since the 8th century.
Ur, Ur of the Chaldeans, is an ancient city-state in Mesopotamia, in the territory of modern Iraq.
Wales (in the old days Veles), a peninsula in the west of Great Britain.
Fanagora is the former local name of the ancient city (between Taman and Sennaya), in which there was a lighthouse (lantern on the mountain) on the mountain.
Fars is a historical region in the south of Iran. Before the Arab conquest (7th century) called. Pars, Parsa, Parsia, Persida. In the Middle Ages - the core of the states of the Buyids, Mozafferids, Zends, etc.
Philippopolis is an ancient city in Thrace on the southeast bank of the Hebra; modern Plovdiv in Bulgaria.
Philippi is the ancient capital of Macedonia.
Hadzhibey - the name of Odessa under the Turks and Tatars.
Hayastan is the name of Armenia among the Armenians.
Hainash is the official name of the city of Ainaži in Latvia until 1917.
Halan (Halne, Halonitis) is a historical region in Mesopotamia, near Ctesiphon.
Chaldea - (Babylonia, Shinar), a historical region in Mesopotamia since the arrival of the Chaldeans (626-538 BC).
Chalcedon is a city in Bithynia, at the entrance to the Thracian Bosphorus.
Charax - Roman fortress in the 1st century. BC. - sir. 3rd century AD at Cape Ai-Todor in Crimea.
Harappa is the ruins of one of the oldest centers of civilization in India and Pakistan. Known from 3-1 thousand BC.
Kharukhain-Belgas is a medieval city (10-13 centuries) on the territory of modern Mongolia, on the river. Haruh. Fortifications, suburban irrigated arable lands, residential areas, water supply.
Hattusas is an ancient city in Anatolia; in the 17th-13th centuries. BC. was the capital of the Khet state.
Khvalynsk is a city in Saratov region, pier on the Volga; founded by immigrants from the Caspian Sea (Khvalyn Sea).
Khvalynskoe Sea - (Khvalisskoe Sea), the Old Slavic name of the Caspian (Hircanian in Iranian) Sea.
Hedeby (Haithabu; Hedeby, Haithabu) - a medieval center in Denmark (9th-mid-11th centuries), was destroyed as a result of an attack by Christians.
Kherson is the most important of the cities of the Greek colony of Chersonese Tauride; in the Middle Ages - Korsun; since 1778 - again Kherson.
Chersonesus (from Greek - peninsula, cape) Thracian - on the Sea of ​​​​Marmara; Chersonese Tauride in Crimea; Chersonese Cretan or Akritian.
Khlynov was the former name of the ancient city before it was renamed Vyatka (Vyatko or Vyachko, and in Christian terms, Prince Vyacheslav died.
Khorasan is a historical region in NE Iran; center of the Parthian kingdom in 250 BC. - 224 AD. In the 3rd-18th centuries. X. included C Iran, the Merv oasis in the south of modern. Turkmenistan, part of Herat and Balkh.
Khorezm is the former name of Khiva.
The Khorezm Sea is one of the names of the Aral Sea.
Horeb is the former name of the Sinai mountains.
Khorsabad is an ancient fortress founded by the Assyrian king Sargon (King Gon, King Gun) in 717 BC. near the city of Mosul.
Horutania is the Slavic name for Carinthia; from the ancient name of the Slovenes - Horutane.
Khotyn is an ancient Russian city on the Dniester, which was re-conquered from the Turks in 1769.
Hromkla (Rumkale, Romkla) is a medieval city near Tarsus in Cilicia.
Tsera - (tse Ra) the name of the ancient Etruscan city (modern Chetveteri).
Red Rus' is a historical region, part of Galicia, which had this name before baptism.
Chernigov is an ancient Russian city in Ukraine; known from chronicles from 907.
Montenegro is a former historical region, a state on the Balkan Peninsula.
Black Mountains - volcanic mountains in Crimea (Karadag). These mountains and the neighboring Black Sea steppes gave their name local lands Black Rus'.
Black Earth is the former name in Rus' of Black or Volga Bulgaria.
Black Rus' - the name in the 13-14th centuries. NW Belarusian lands in bass. upper Neman since Gorodno, Novogorodok, Volkovysk, Slonim, Zditov, Lida, Nesvizh. From the 10th century - in Dr. Russian state; from 13 - in the Grand Duchy of Russian and Litvinsky.
The Black Sea is the modern name of the sea, which ancient and later authors called: the Russian Sea, the Rumian Sea, the Pontus Euxine, Pontos, Bontus, the Nitas Sea, the An-Nitasi Sea (among Idrisi in the 12th century).
Shavly is the former Slavic name of Shauliai.
Sharukan is the name of Taman during the reign of the Muslim Sharukanids.
Shash is the name of Tashkent before the Arab conquest in 712.
Swabia is a historical region in Western Europe, now in the southeast of Germany.
Shetland Islands - a group of islands in the northwestern part Atlantic Ocean, part of Great Britain.
Egippius - (Egypt, Egypt) one of the ancient names of Kuban.
Epirus is a historical region, present-day Albania and Montenegro.
Yuryev is the former name of the Russian city; after the capture by the Germans - Dorpat; modern - Tallinn.
Jutland is a peninsula in Europe, between North and Baltic seas, part of Denmark and Germany.
Jutta (Heb. Mountain country) is a city near Hebron in Palestine.
Yaik is the former name of the Ural River.
Yaksart - (Axart) the ancient name of the Syr Darya branch before the Arab conquest at the beginning of the 8th century.
Janovo was the official name of the city of Jonava until 1917.
Yarov - the name of a fortified city in the north-east of England-England in the 8th century; modern - Jarrow.
Yaroslavl is an ancient Russian city in Galicia. Yaroslavl is the regional center of Russia; founded in 1010.
Yathrib (Yatreb) is the former name of the city of Medina.