Peoples of Russia. Aleuts. History, religion and economic activity of the Aleuts Aleutian Islands and their people

The multimedia project “Faces of Russia” has existed since 2006, telling about Russian civilization, the most important feature of which is the ability to live together while remaining different - this motto is especially relevant for countries throughout the post-Soviet space. From 2006 to 2012, within the framework of the project, we created 60 documentaries about representatives of different Russian ethnic groups. Also, 2 cycles of radio programs “Music and Songs of the Peoples of Russia” were created - more than 40 programs. Illustrated almanacs were published to support the first series of films.

Now we are halfway to creating a unique multimedia encyclopedia of the peoples of our country, a snapshot that will allow the residents of Russia to recognize themselves and leave a legacy for posterity with a picture of what they were like.

General information

ALEUTS- the people are few. According to the 2010 census, only 482 Aleuts live on the Commander Islands (Russia). There are also American Aleuts. There are about two thousand of them, and they live in the Aleutian Islands and Alaska. In the middle of the 18th century, the number of Aleuts reached 15 thousand people.

At the end of the 18th century, the Aleuts, having experienced the strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language.

The Aleut language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. The Russian language had the greatest influence on the Aleutian language in the field of vocabulary. There are a lot of borrowings from the Russian language. Most of the words were borrowed to designate new household items, dishes, clothing, etc. Many words penetrated into the Aleut language in connection with the adoption of Orthodoxy.

Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy; religious rituals are performed in Russian and Aleut languages. The sea and the sea coast provided the Aleuts with everything they needed for life. The rhythm of the life of the sea: its ebb and flow, the approach to the shores of schools of fish going to spawn and sea animals striving for coastal rookeries, the spring revival of bird colonies, the appearance of mollusks and algae on the shallows - all this determined the rhythm of life and activities of the Aleuts throughout the year.

The ability to predict the weather is vital for the inhabitants of the islands, and the Aleuts are able to do this to perfection. The appearance of the water surface, the shape of the waves and clouds can tell experienced observers a lot about what the Aleuts were like. Until now, the Aleutian secrets of weather forecasting have not been solved.

Household and life

The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition (1733 - 1743). Russian sailors, explorers, and industrialists collected data about the culture of the people. For a long time, there were two hypotheses of their origin.

According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to the other, from Alaska. Research proves that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000 - 4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts made up the southern group of Eskimos; according to other sources, they became an independent ethnic group quite a long time ago. Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska were controlled by the Russian-American Company. To develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company resettled there from these islands some of the Aleuts, the ancestors of the present ones.

Subsequently, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atka and California who married Aleuts. Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka; in 1827 there were already 110 of them. In 1900 on the island. Bering was home to 279 Aleuts, and on the island. Medny - 253 people from Atau. Nowadays there are 550 Aleuts living on the Commanders.

The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profits. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on the remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts was approaching the status of foreigners of the Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury, and since 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States.

In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, the islands were rented by various commercial and industrial companies. The peculiarities of life of the Commander Aleuts were determined by the isolation of the islands. Until 1867, their population worked for the Russian-American Company: they procured furs, meat and fat from sea animals, preserving their traditional culture. The main place was occupied by hunting sea animals from kayaks and catching seals on land.

Fishing began at the end of April. From spring to autumn they fished. In mid-July, they hunted birds using throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bola was thrown into the flock and the bird, entangled in the straps, became the prey of the hunter. They were also caught at bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as with nets. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. Sea beaver (sea otter) were caught in the open sea using a harpoon (a throwing spear on a long rope), sea lions and walruses were caught in rookeries, seals were lured ashore with a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female, whales were hunted using a spear, the tip of which smeared with poison aconite. After 2-3 days, the sea washed the animal’s carcass ashore.

Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50-70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows, arrows and guns were also known. An important role in sea hunting was played by the baidara - a wooden, flat-bottomed frame boat covered with sea lion or seal skin and the kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch where the hunter sat.

It was controlled with a two-bladed oar (a prototype of a sports kayak). With the advent of firearms, two-key kayaks began to be made (during shooting, the second rower had to maintain balance). Some elements not typical for the mainland Aleut culture also spread: for example, on the island. Bering appeared sleds (sleighs) with dog sleds, on the island. Mednom - short, wide skis lined with seal skin.

From stone, men made knives, axes, arrow and spear tips, vessels for cooking, and fat lamps with a moss wick for lighting and heating the home. Women sewed and embroidered clothes, made coverings for canoes, and wove mats and baskets. Women's universal tool was the pekulka - a wide, short and slightly curved knife. The needles were made from bird bones. The villages were located on the sea coast, often at the mouths of rivers and consisted of 2-4 large semi-dugouts (ulyagams). The tall ones were chosen open spaces, so that from there it would be convenient to observe the progress of sea animals and the approach of enemies.

Half-dugouts were built from driftwood, and the top was covered with dry grass, skins and turf. They left several rectangular holes in the roof for entry and climbed up there along a log with notches. The dwelling accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. Each family lived on its own part of the bunks, separated from each other by pillars and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. In the summer they moved to separate light buildings. In the 19th century the traditional half-dugout was modified: the walls and roof, made of poles and boards, were covered with turf. At the top there was a hatch for lighting, and on the side there was an exit through a small vestibule.

Homes were lit with grease lamps, and sometimes stoves were installed. Along with traditional utensils, they used imported factory-made utensils. Traditional clothing was a parka - a long, blind (without a slit in the front) clothing made of fur seal, sea otter, and bird skins. On top of it they put on a kamleika - a solid waterproof garment made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a closed closed collar and a hood (a prototype of a European windbreaker). The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes.

Traditional fishing jackets with hoods made of sea lion intestines and throats, and trousers made of seal skin have been preserved. Men's and women's clothing were completely identical in cut and decoration. A new type of clothing also appeared - brodni - trousers made from sea lion throats, to which were sewn waterproof torbas - soft skins made from the skin of sea animals. Shoes - torbas - soft boots made of the skin of sea animals. IN Everyday life wore Russian clothes.

The hunting headdresses were wooden hats of a conical shape (for Toyon leaders) or without a top with a very elongated front part (for simple hunters), richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, and sea lion mustaches. They were worn on the hood of the kamleika. Such hats were hollowed out from a single piece of wood, then steamed into the desired shape, and painted in bright colors, creating a fancy ornament. The sides and back were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved with geometric patterns, into which paint was rubbed.

A bone figurine of a bird or animal was attached to the top of the back plate, which also served as the top of the hat. Steller's whiskers up to 50 centimeters long were inserted into the side holes of the plate. Their number depended on the hunting ability of the owner and indicated the number of walruses hunted. These headdresses were worn only by men. Festive and ritual headdresses included hats of various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, and leather headbands with patterned seams. An integral part of the festive decoration are necklaces, hand and ankle bracelets, inserts and pendants in holes made in and near the lips, as well as in the nose, along the edges of the auricle and in the earlobe. They were made from bone, stone, wooden and slate sticks, feathers, sea lion whiskers, grass and plant roots. The Aleuts tattooed and painted their faces and bodies, but this tradition began to wane as contacts with the Russians began.

Meat and fish were eaten raw, fried or boiled. They stocked mainly dried fish and whale oil for future use. The latter was kept in bubbles from the stomachs of sea animals. By the middle of the 18th century. the population of each island or group of islands represented an independent territorial entity with its own name and dialect. Presumably, these were tribes consisting of clan communities - associations of persons related by blood relations and the name of a common ancestor. The clan group was headed by a leader (toyon), he either received power by inheritance or was elected. His responsibilities included trade and political relations, court cases, protection of sea animal rookeries, and control of other areas. As a military head, the leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade transactions; in everyday economic activities he was entitled to an equal share with everyone else. In addition to the leader, the clan group was headed by a council of elders. There are references in the literature to the existence of ancestral community houses for meetings and celebrations. The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. The slave participated in the normal economic activities of the group, in wars.

For bravery or Good work he could have been released. Traditional social norms remained, associated with the remnants of group marriage - an ancient form of marriage, when a group of men was considered the potential husbands of a group of women and norms of matrilineality (from the Latin mater - mother and linea - line: accounts of kinship along the maternal line); cross-cousin marriages (from the English cross - cross and French cusin - cousin: marriages of first cousins ​​are a relic of a group marriage concluded between members of two clans); polygamy and polyandry, avunculate (from Latin avunculus - mother's brother), - the custom of patronage of the maternal uncle in relation to nephews; hospitable heterism (a custom according to which a husband provided his wife for the night to a guest).

In the 19th century clan communities disintegrated. With the adoption of Christianity by the middle of the 19th century. Mostly, the dowry (the ransom for the wife) and the labor that replaced it for the wife disappeared (the husband lived for 1-2 years in the family of his wife’s parents and helped run the household), as well as polygamy, polyandry and hospitable heterism. At the same time, matchmaking and wedding rituals spread. Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism (from the Latin anima, animus - soul, spirit) - ideas about the soul as a vital force and the existence of good and evil spirits and their influence on human life. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood, and bird skins were passed down from generation to generation as personal amulets. Patron spirits were represented by wooden masks, which were worn during ritual dances.

Shamanism was widespread among the Aleuts, in the mythology of which there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman's costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird. In addition to shamanism, there was also hunting magic (from the Greek mageia - witchcraft, sorcery), which consisted of rituals of summoning the beast, special hunting prohibitions and the wearing of amulets that protect the owner. The dead were buried in a sitting position.

Family burials were placed in small depressions among the rocks. The deceased’s tools, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets (items with supernatural, magical properties) were also placed there. Noble people were buried along with slaves in caves; a painted pillar was placed at the entrance, or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars. The dead were embalmed. One of the main holidays - the winter solstice holiday - was accompanied by dancing, dramatic performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes, and the distribution of gifts. The rituals that preceded the hunting season were famous for pantomimes and dancing accompanied by singing and a tambourine. The performers wore special headdresses and wooden masks. At the end of the eighteenth century. The Aleuts, having experienced the strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language.

It is characteristic that some of the aborigines became missionaries. Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy; religious rituals are performed in Russian and Aleut languages. Folklore has not been sufficiently studied, since fundamental research has not been carried out. There are fairy tales, heroic epics (narration), or heroic tales, stories about ancient customs, everyday stories, songs, sayings and riddles.

Most fairy tales are based on mythological stories. The most widespread were myths about the spirits of patron animals and etiological (concerning the causes of various phenomena) legends about the original immortality of people, about the origin of people from a dog that fell from the sky, etc. The heroic epic includes legends about ancestors, about the fight against cannibals, about the resettlement of people from continent to the islands, stories about the campaigns of eastern groups of Aleuts to the west, about blood feuds that led to brutal wars, etc. Everyday stories tell about fishing trips, travels; legends - about fugitive Aleuts hiding from the Russians in caves, about long journeys; satirical stories - about a hunter who died from gluttony inside a whale. Many stories reflect traditional family relationships: about the infidelity of a husband or a jealous wife, about the hero’s cohabitation with his cousin’s wife, about the hostile relationship of a son-in-law with his brother-in-law (wife’s brother), etc.

Song folklore was extremely developed. At holidays, men, to the sound of a tambourine, sang of the exploits of their ancestors, their prowess in fishing, and their dexterity in operating a canoe. During games, ritual actions and the performance of fairy tales, they sang to the accompaniment of a multi-stringed sword-shaped zither (chayakh), which was later replaced by a guitar. The predatory exploitation of fisheries by American and Russian companies has led to the impoverishment of the local population and the undermining of the foundations of traditional culture. At the end of the nineteenth century. population growth slowed down, disease and alcohol led to an increase in mortality. By the 1920s The impoverishment of the Commander Aleuts reached its limit.

After graduation civil war In the Far East, the restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands began, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and sea hunting. The process of revival of the Aleuts included the creation of an animal farm in 1925, the allocation of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian Islands in 1928 national region, participation of the people in management, training of national intelligentsia and technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth began. At the same time, the process of dispersal of the Aleuts and their settlement on the mainland was developing. Since 1969, Aleuts have mainly lived in the village. Nikolsky. In terms of lifestyle and social structure they do not differ from the visiting population. The number of interethnic marriages has increased.

ALEUTS - (self-name - Unangai), people, indigenous population of the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula (USA) and the Commander Islands ( Russian Federation, 644 people). The Aleut language is of the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. Believers are mostly Orthodox.

Settlement

They live on the Aleutian Islands, the north of the Alaska Peninsula and its neighboring islands (8 thousand people). On the Commander Islands, according to the 2002 population census, there are 592 people.

The number of Aleuts in the middle of the 18th century. - 12–15 thousand people. In the 1980s 1815 people lived on the Aleutian Islands, incl. in Unalaska - 178, Sand Point - 360, King Cove - 283, village. Saint George - 163, Saint Paul - 450 people. In Alaska, in Anchorage - 1512 people, in Kodiak - 573 people.

History of the people

According to anthropological characteristics, the Aleuts, together with the Eskimos, are classified as the Arctic type of the Pacific branch of the large Mongoloid race. The language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut family, presumably separated 3-4 thousand years ago. IN AND. Jochelson considered it one of the archaic dialects of the Eskimo language. The dialects of the Aleut language are eastern, or Unalaska (Alaska Peninsula, Unalaska, Umnak, Pribilova islands), western, or Atta (Attu, Medny islands) and the closely related Atka subdialect (Atka and Bering islands). The first grammar of the Aleut language was compiled by I.E. Veniaminov at the beginning XIX century based on the Cyrillic alphabet. Since the 1970s writing is in Latin (based on eastern and western dialects); in schools, education is conducted in the native and English languages. The name “Aleut” was given by the Russians and was first found in documents of 1747. There are a number of versions about the origin of the ethnonym “Aleut”: according to the similarity of the islanders discovered by Russian Siberian travelers with the Teleuts, or Eleuts, who lived in the Tomsk province (18th century); by the name “alant”, which the Russians in Kamchatka gave to every nameless cliff in the sea (K.T. Khlebnikov, 1830–1840); according to I.E.'s guess Veniaminov (1840), upon seeing the Russians, the islanders asked each other: “alik-uaya” (abbreviated as aliuaya) - “what is this?” Without being able to find out the present time. named after the aborigines, the Russians began to call them Aliuts (then Aleuts); according to G.A. Menovshchikov, the ethnonym arose from the Chukchi allitkhukh (detachment, army, community); according to L.S. Berg (1935) - from the Chukchi alyat - island, aliut - islanders. The self-name of the Aleut is Unangan (eastern dialect) or Unangas (western dialect). There were also local names for the inhabitants of various islands: sasignan, saskinan (Near Islands), kagun (Rat Islands), akugun (Four Hill Islands), kigigun (Krenitsyna and Unalaska), kagan tayagungin (Shumagina, Alaska Peninsula), unimgin (Unimak), kaulyangin, kagulingin (Umnak, Unalaska), nigugin, niyagungin (Atka), namigun, negbo (Andrean Islands). The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition (1733–1743). Russian researchers, industrialists, and missionaries collected data about the culture of the Aleuts. Particularly thorough were the studies of G.A. Sarycheva, I.E. Veniaminova, V.I. Yochelson. The latter spent in the Aleutian Islands in 1909–1910 archaeological excavations. From the end XIX century the study of the Aleuts became increasingly concentrated on the problem of their origin.

For a long time there were 2 hypotheses. According to one (Steller, Veniaminov, Quimby, Collins, de Laguna, Heizer, Kozyreva), the Aleuts came from the northeast of the Asian coast. According to another (Doll, Jochelson, Hrdlicka, Spaulding, Benk) - from Alaska. Research by G.F. Debetsa, M.G. Levin, V. Laughlin, N.N. Dikova, R.S. Vasilievsky prove that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture of the Aleuts took place in their modern territories 6000–4600 BC According to one point of view (Quimby), the Aleuts constituted the southern group of Eskimos; according to others (Doll, Jochelson, Tokareva, Hrdlicka, Bergsland, Laughlin), the Aleuts became an independent ethnic group quite a long time ago. Judging by the common, very rare N blood group among Eskimos and Indians, there are deep ethnogenetic roots of the ancestors of the Eskimo-Soaleuts and American Indians. K ser. XVIII century the population of each island or group of islands was a territorial entity with its own name and dialect.

Farm

The type of traditional Aleut economy has been determined natural conditions islands. The Bering Sea is rich in pinnipeds and whales. The abundance of fish in the seas was supplemented by the seasonal migration of red fish to island rivers for spawning. Many rocky islands with bird colonies provided opportunities for hunting birds and eggs. The tidal zone served as a gathering place for shellfish, seaweed, etc. The collection of berries, roots and herbs was of secondary importance. Meat and fish were eaten raw, dried or boiled. They mainly stored dried fish and whale oil for future use (it was kept in bladders from the stomachs of sea animals). The hunt began at the end of April. From May to autumn, fish going to spawn were caught. In mid-July we hunted birds. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. The sea beaver (otter) was hunted on the open sea using a light, fixed harpoon (beaver arrow). When hunting sea lions and seals, they used a heavy, fixed harpoon, which was thrown without the help of a throwing board. Rotary harpoons were used when hunting bearded seals and others. Steller sea lions were killed in rookeries, driving them away from the water with sticks (dregalki) and spears. The seal was lured to the shore by a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female. Whales were hunted using a spear, the tip of which was smeared with poison. After 2–3 days, the dead animal was thrown ashore. Birds were caught using shatin and metat throwing spears. bola projectile - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends, which were thrown, giving it a rotational movement, at a flock of birds. At the same time, the bird became entangled in the straps. Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50–70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows and arrows were also known. The fish were caught by fishing, during spawning they were beaten with spears or caught with nets, having previously built a dam on the river. An important role in sea hunting was played by the canoe - a frame boat made of sea lion or seal skin. Sitting in a round hole in waterproof clothing, the hunter pulled its edges tightly around his belt. To insure against an accident, bladders made of inflated seal skins or sea lion stomachs were tied to the canoe. With the penetration of firearms, the spread of double hatch kayaks; During shooting, the second rower had to maintain balance. Multi-oared open kayaks were used to transport children and women, cargo, and also on military campaigns. Men were engaged in the manufacture of weapons, tools, stone and wooden utensils. Stone was used to make knives, axes attached to wooden handles, tips for arrows and spears, vessels for cooking, fat lamps for lighting and heating the home, burning in whale oil (the wick was made of moss). Women sewed, embroidered clothes, made coverings for canoes, and wove mats and baskets. The Aleuts developed all types of woven weaving from plants. fibers Aleutian weaving is called for high skill. silk, it differed from the Eskimo and Indian. Women's universal tool was the pekulka - a wide, short and slightly curved knife. The needles were made from bird bones. Aleut settlements were located on the sea coast, often at river mouths. High, open places were chosen so that from there it would be convenient to observe the progress of sea animals and the approach of enemies. The settlements consisted of 2–4 large semi-dugouts (ulyagams). They were built from driftwood and covered with dry grass, skins and turf. They left several rectangular holes in the roof for entry and climbed up there along a log with notches. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. The house accommodated 10–40 families. The family lived on their part of the bunks, separated from each other by pillars and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. For the summer, each family moved into a building such as a hut or semi-dugout made of whale bones and driftwood (ulyaq) - this type of dwelling was more common among the eastern Aleuts. Ulyaks also served as storage areas for food and hunting equipment.

Cloth

The traditional clothing of the Aleuts was a parka - a long, closed jacket made of fur from seals, sea otters, bird skins, and for women - from the skins of sea beavers or seals with the fur inside. On top of it they put on a kamleika - waterproof clothing made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a closed collar and a hood. The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Both parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes. Men's and women's clothing were the same in cut, with slightly different decorations. Shoes were torbasa - boots made from the skin of sea animals. A more ancient type of torbus had a wide boot with a sewn sole. The Aleuts did not make their own shoes; they exchanged torbas from the Eskimos. Male fishermen also wore trophy shoes.

Hunting headdresses were richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, and sea lion mustaches, wooden hats of a conical shape (among the “toyon” leaders) or without a top with a greatly elongated front part (among simple hunters). They were worn on the hood over the kamleika. According to S.V. Ivanov, Aleutian hats go back to the most ancient zoomorphic headdresses and are associated with hunting magic. G. Collins, T. Mathiassen, T. Jenness suggested a connection between their ornaments and the ancient Bering Sea culture and, through it, with the ancestors of the Melanesians, Ainu, and Amur peoples. Such headdresses among the Aleuts were especially common during the period of Russian colonization: they were worn by leaders during contacts with Russians - to distinguish them from ordinary fellow tribesmen. They were made by chiselling from a single piece of wood, which was then steamed, giving it the desired shape. (Later - from several pieces of wood, overlapped.) The finished hat was painted with white, black, red, blue, green and yellow colors (ornament - stripes, lines of dots, circles, semicircles, strokes, curvilinear patterns of curls, paired and sigma-shaped spirals and rosettes; sometimes plot drawings), the sides and back were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved geometrically. ornament into which paint was rubbed. A bone figurine of a bird or animal was attached to the top of the back plate. Steller's whiskers were inserted into the side holes of the plate. up to 50 cm. The number of mustaches depended on the hunting qualities of the owner and indicated the number of walruses he had killed.

Festive and ritual headdresses included hats of various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, and leather headbands with patterned seams. Only men were allowed to wear hats.

They wore necklaces, hand and anklets, inserts and pendants in holes made in and near the lips, in the nose, along the edges of the auricle and in the earlobe, made of bone, stone, wooden and slate sticks, feathers, sea lion whiskers, grass and plant roots. There were widespread tattoo and face and body painting. With the beginning of contacts with the Russians and the adoption of baptism, they disappeared from use.

Aleut associations

The territorial associations of the Aleuts consisted of clan groups that considered their origin from a common ancestor, and were headed by a leader who received power either by inheritance or by election. His responsibilities included trade and political relations, judicial affairs, protection of sea animal rookeries, control over other lands, and military administration. The leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade transactions; in everyday life he was entitled to an equal share with everyone else. In addition to the leader, the clan group was headed by a council of elders. There are references to ancestral communal houses, there were elements of secret male unions with typical imitations, disguises, intimidation of women, and secrecy. Young men were accepted on the proposal of an uncle on their mother’s side or (less often) their father’s. There were also women's secret unions that organized dances on the full moon, forbidden for men. The account of kinship is patri-, matri- and bilateral. Patri- and matrilocal marriage. There were avunculates, cousin marriages, polygamy, sororate, levirate, and fraternal polyandry. The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. A slave participated in ordinary economic activities, in wars, and for bravery or good work he could be set free. It is assumed that slavery among the Aleuts developed later than among the Indians of the northwestern coast of America (Tlingit, Kwakiutl, etc.).

Religion

In the 19th century clan communities disintegrated. With the adoption of Christianity in mid. XIX century The main things that disappeared were labor for wife and dowry, polygamy and hospitable heterism. Traditional Aleut beliefs are characterized by animism, ideas about the existence of good and evil spirits. Evil spirits mainly caused diseases. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood, and bird skins were passed down from generation to generation as personal amulets. Patron spirits were also represented by wooden masks worn during ritual dances. Shamanism was widespread. Shamanic mythology included ideas about different worlds, about the infusion of disease-causing spirits into humans. Like some peoples of Siberia, the shamanic costume symbolized a bird. There was also hunting magic - rituals of summoning animals, special hunting prohibitions, wearing amulets; The Aleuts believed that by putting on the skin, a person turns into the corresponding animal that protects the owner.

The calculation of months began in March. Their names were associated with local features of the annual economic cycle and varied according to different groups Aleuts.

Family burials were located in small depressions among the rocks. The deceased were placed in a sitting position. The deceased's tools, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets were placed in the burials. Noble Aleuts were embalmed, buried (often along with their slaves) in caves, with a painted pillar placed at the entrance, or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars.

One of the main holidays of the Aleuts - the winter solstice - included dancing, performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes, and the distribution of gifts. The rituals preceding the hunting season were accompanied by pantomime and dancing accompanied by singing and a tambourine. The performers wore ritual headdresses and wooden masks depicting the corresponding heroes.

From the end XVIII century Aleuts converted to Orthodoxy were strongly influenced by Russian culture. Their rituals of matchmaking and weddings became widespread. Religious books were translated into the Aleut language, and some of the missionaries came from the aborigines. The Aleuts still remain adherents of Orthodoxy and conduct services in Russian and Aleutian. Since 1799, the territory of the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska was controlled by the Russian-American Company (RAC). The former spontaneous contacts of the Aleuts with Russian industrialists were replaced by organized management. The main goal of the RAC in relation to the Aleuts was the desire to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profit. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on the remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts approached the status of other foreigners of the Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury, and from 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects.

In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States. Initially, their territory was under military control, and in 1884 it received the status of a district. The Aleuts maintained contacts with whalers and fur traders. Since 1887, in connection with the discovery of gold deposits in Alaska, its industrial development began, and the number of newcomers increased sharply. The fish canning industry developed in the Aleutian Islands.

The culture of the indigenous people was greatly influenced by the activities of missionaries. The assimilation of the Aleuts accelerated, especially through schools where teaching was conducted in English language. All this had a destructive effect on their traditional culture and way of life. In 1912, Alaska (with the Aleutian Islands) received the status of a territory with local self-government. Since 1915, like the entire indigenous population of Alaska, the Aleuts were equal in rights to US Indians and placed under the tutelage of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1924 they received citizenship rights. In 1959, Alaska became a US state.

Story studying Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Great Northern (Second Kamchatka) expedition (1733-1743). Russian sailors, explorers, and industrialists collected data about the culture of the people. For a long time, there were two hypotheses of their origin. According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeast Asian coast, according to the other, from Alaska. Research proves that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000 - 4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts made up the southern group of Eskimos; according to other sources, they became an independent ethnic group quite a long time ago.

Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska were controlled by the Russian-American Company. To develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company resettled there from these islands some of the Aleuts, the ancestors of the present ones. Subsequently, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atka and California who married Aleuts.

Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka; in 1827 there were already 110 people. In 1900, 279 Aleuts lived on Bering Island, and 253 people from Atau lived on Medny Island. Nowadays there are 550 Aleuts living on the Commanders. The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profits. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on the remote islands.

The official status of the Aleuts approached the status of foreigners of the Russian Empire: they paid yasak to the treasury, and from 1821 they were recognized as Russian subjects. In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States. In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, the islands were rented by various commercial and industrial companies.

After the end of the civil war in the Far East, the restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands began, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and sea hunting. The process of revival of the Aleuts included the creation of an animal farm in 1925, the allocation of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian national region in 1928, the participation of the people in management, the training of national intelligentsia and technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth began. At the same time, the process of dispersal of the Aleuts and their settlement on the mainland was developing. Since 1969, Aleuts have mainly lived in the village of Nikolskoye. In terms of lifestyle and social structure they do not differ from the visiting population. The number of interethnic marriages has increased.

Religion of the Aleuts.
Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism (from the Latin anima, animus - soul, spirit) - ideas about the soul as a vital force and the existence of good and evil spirits and their influence on human life. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood and bird skins were passed down as personal amulets. Patron spirits were represented by wooden masks, which were worn during ritual dances. Shamanism was widespread among the Aleuts, in whose mythology there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman's costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird. In addition to shamanism, there was also hunting magic (from the Greek mageia - witchcraft, sorcery), which consisted of rituals of summoning the beast, special hunting prohibitions and the wearing of amulets that protect the owner.

At the end of the 18th century, the Aleuts, having experienced the strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language. It is characteristic that some of the aborigines became missionaries. Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy; religious rituals are performed in Russian and Aleut languages.

Economic activity of the Aleuts.

The peculiarities of life of the Commander Aleuts were determined by the isolation of the islands. Until 1867, their population worked for the Russian-American Company: they procured furs, meat and fat from sea animals, preserving their traditional culture. The main place was occupied by hunting sea animals from kayaks and catching seals on land.

Fishing began at the end of April. From spring to autumn they fished. In mid-July, they hunted birds using throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bola was thrown into the flock and the bird, entangled in the straps, became the prey of the hunter. They were also caught at bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as with nets. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. Sea beaver (sea otter) were caught in the open sea using a harpoon (a throwing spear on a long rope), sea lions and walruses were caught in rookeries, seals were lured ashore with a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female, whales were hunted using a spear, the tip of which smeared with poison aconite. After 2-3 days, the sea washed the animal’s carcass ashore. Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50-70 cm long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows, arrows and guns were also known.

In Russia, Aleuts live on the Commander Islands (Medny Islands, Bering Islands), but most of them live in the USA (Alaska, Aleutian Islands).

Language, dialects.

The language is the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. The language supposedly became isolated 3-4 thousand years ago and was one of the ancient dialects of the Eskimo language. On Bering Island, the Atkin dialect of the Aleutian language was widespread, on Medny Island a new dialect was formed based on the Atkin dialect and the Russian language. When communicating, the inhabitants of these islands had difficulty understanding each other.

Origin, settlement.

The history of the study of the Aleuts begins with the discovery of the Aleutian Islands in 1741 by the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1732–1743). Russian sailors, explorers, and industrialists collected data about the culture of the people. For a long time, there were two hypotheses of their origin. According to one, the Aleuts came from the northeastern Asian coast, according to the other, from Alaska. Research proves that the formation of the anthropological type, language and culture took place 6000–4600 years ago. There is an assumption that the Aleuts constituted the southern group of Eskimos; according to other sources, they became an independent ethnos (from the Greek ethnos - “people”) quite a long time ago.

Their number in the middle of the 18th century reached 12–15 thousand people. Since 1799, the Aleutian Islands and the adjacent part of Alaska were ruled by the Russian-American Company, and to develop the uninhabited Commander Islands, the company resettled some of the Aleuts there. Subsequently, the population of the Commander Islands was replenished not only by Aleuts, but also by Creoles (descendants of Europeans and Aleuts) and Russian industrialists from Atka Island and California who married Aleuts. Bering Island was inhabited mainly by people from Atka; in 1827 there were already 110 of them. In 1900, 279 Aleuts lived on Bering Island, and 253 people from Attu Island lived on Medny Island. Nowadays, 550 Aleuts live on the Commanders. The main goal of the Russian-American Company was to preserve their traditional economy as a reliable source of profits. Officials appointed clerks and kayakers to organize fishing on the remote islands. The official status of the Aleuts was approaching the status of foreigners Russian Empire; they paid yasak to the treasury (in Russia of the 15th–20th centuries, the tax in kind from the peoples of Siberia and the North was paid mainly in furs). Since 1821, the Aleuts have been recognized as Russian subjects.

In 1867, the Aleutian Islands, along with Alaska, were sold to the United States. In Russia, the Aleuts remained only on the Commanders. From 1891 to 1917, the islands were rented by various commercial and industrial companies.

The name “Aleut” was given by the Russians and was first found in documents of 1747, presumably coming from the Chukchi aliat - “island”, aliut - “islanders” or from allitkhukh - “detachment, army, community” (there is also an assumption that this is a modified word alut , which was the name given to the residents of the village of Alyutorsky on east coast Kamchatka). Ethnonym (from the Greek ethnos - “people”, onyma - “name”: self-name of the people) of the Mednovsky Aleuts - Sasignan, Saskinan, Bering - Unangan, Negosis, Negogahvs. The name "Aleuts" took root at the beginning of the 20th century.

Writing.

The first grammar of the Aleut language was compiled at the beginning of the 19th century based on the Cyrillic alphabet.

Crafts, craft tools, means of transportation.

The peculiarities of life of the Commander Aleuts were determined by the isolation of the islands. Until 1867, their population continued to work for the Russian-American Company: they procured furs, meat and fat from sea animals, preserving their traditional culture. The main place was occupied by hunting sea animals from kayaks and catching seals on land.

Fishing began at the end of April. From spring to autumn they fished. In mid-July, they hunted birds using throwing spears (shatin) and a throwing projectile (bola) - a bunch of belts with stone or bone weights at the ends. Having untwisted, the bola was thrown into the flock, and the bird, entangled in the straps, became the prey of the hunter. Birds were also caught at bird markets with a large net on a long pole (chirucha), as well as with nets. In winter they hunted for seals from the shore. The sea beaver (sea otter) was caught in the open sea using a harpoon - a throwing spear on a long rope; Steller sea lions and walruses were hunted in rookeries; the seal was lured to the shore with a decoy - an inflated seal skin, imitating the cry of a female; whales were hunted with a spear, the tip of which was smeared with aconite poison. After 2–3 days, the sea washed the animal’s carcass ashore.

Harpoons and spears were thrown using spear throwers - wooden planks 50–70 centimeters long with a longitudinal groove, finger grooves at one end and a bone stop at the other. Bows, arrows and guns were also known.

An important role in sea hunting was played by the kayak - a flat-bottomed boat with a wooden frame, covered with sea lion or seal skin, and the kayak - a closed leather boat with a wooden frame and a hatch where the hunter sat (a prototype of a sports kayak). It was controlled with a two-bladed oar. With the advent of firearms, double-hatch kayaks began to be made (during shooting, the second rower had to maintain balance).

Some devices for movement, uncharacteristic of the Aleut culture, also became widespread. On Bering Island, for example, sleds (sleighs) with dog sleds appeared, on Medny Island - short, wide skis lined with seal skin.

From stone, men made knives, axes, arrow and spear tips, vessels for cooking, and fat lamps with a moss wick for lighting and heating the home. Women sewed and embroidered clothes, made coverings for canoes, and wove mats and baskets. Women's universal tool was the pekulka - a wide, short and slightly curved knife. The needles were made from bird bones.

Dwellings.

The villages were located on the sea coast, often at the mouths of rivers, and consisted of two to four large semi-dugouts (ulyagams). High, open places were chosen for them, so that it would be convenient to observe sea animals and the approach of enemies. Half-dugouts were built from driftwood and covered with dry grass, skins and turf. They left several rectangular holes in the roof for entry and climbed up there along a log with notches.

The dwelling accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Inside, bunks were built along the walls. Each family lived on its own part of the bunks, separated from each other by pillars and curtains. Utensils were stored under the bunks. In the summer they moved to separate light buildings.

In the 19th century, the traditional half-dugout was modified: the walls and roof, made of poles and boards, were covered with turf. At the top there was a hatch for lighting, and on the side there was an exit through a small vestibule. Homes were illuminated with grease lamps, and sometimes stoves were installed. Along with traditional utensils, they used imported factory-made utensils.

Cloth.

Traditional clothing was a parka - a long, blind (without a slit in the front) clothing made of fur seal, sea otter, and bird skins. On top of it they put on a kamleika - a solid waterproof garment made from the intestines of sea animals with sleeves, a closed closed collar and a hood (a prototype of a European windbreaker). The edges of the hood and sleeves were tightened with laces. Parkas and kamleikas were decorated with embroidered stripes and fringes. Traditional fishing jackets with hoods made of sea lion intestines and throats, and trousers made of seal skin have been preserved. Men's and women's clothing were completely identical in cut and decoration. Later, a new type of clothing appeared - brodni - trousers made from sea lion throats, to which were sewn waterproof torbas - soft boots made from the skin of sea animals. In everyday life they wore European clothes.

Hunting headdresses were wooden hats of a conical shape (for the leaders - toyons) or without a top, with a very elongated front part (for simple hunters), richly decorated with polychrome painting, carved bone, feathers, and sea lion mustaches. They were worn on the hood of the kamleika. The hats were hollowed out from a whole piece of wood, then steamed and, having been given the desired shape, painted in bright colors with intricate patterns. The sides and back were decorated with carved walrus tusk plates, engraved with geometric patterns, into which paint was rubbed. A bone figurine of a bird or animal was attached to the top of the back plate, which also served as the top of the hat. 50-centimeter sea lion whiskers were inserted into the side holes of the plate, the number of which depended on the hunting ability of the owner. These headdresses were worn only by men.

Festive and ritual headdresses included hats of various shapes made of leather and bird skins with decorations, and leather headbands with patterned seams.

Decorations.

An integral part of the festive decoration are necklaces, hand and ankle bracelets, inserts and pendants in holes made in and near the lips, as well as in the nose, along the edges of the auricle and in the earlobe. They were made from bone, stone, wooden and slate sticks, feathers, sea lion whiskers, grass and plant roots.

The Aleuts tattooed and painted their faces and bodies, but this tradition began to wane as contacts with the Russians began.

Food, its preparation.

Meat and fish were eaten raw, fried or boiled. They stocked mainly dried fish and whale oil for future use. The latter was kept in bubbles from the stomachs of sea animals.

Social life, power, marriage, family. By the middle of the 18th century, the population of each island or group of islands represented an independent territorial entity with its own name and dialect. Presumably these were tribes consisting of clan communities - associations of persons related by blood relations and the name of a common ancestor. The clan group was headed by a toyon. He either received power by inheritance or was elected. His responsibilities included trade and political relations, court cases, protection of sea animal rookeries, and control of other lands. As a military head, the leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade transactions; in everyday economic activities he was entitled to an equal share with everyone.

In addition to the leader, the clan group was headed by a council of elders. There are references in the literature to the existence of ancestral community houses for meetings and celebrations.

The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. The slave participated in ordinary economic activities and in wars. For bravery or good work he could be released.

Traditional social norms remained, associated with the remnants of group marriage (an ancient form of marriage, when a group of men were considered potential husbands of a group of women) and norms of matrilineality (from the Latin mater - “mother” and linea - “line”: accounts of kinship along the maternal line); cross-cousin marriages (from English cross - “cross” and French cusin - “cousin”: marriages of cousins ​​are a relic of a group marriage concluded between members of two clans); polygamy and polyandry, avunculate (from Latin avunculus - “mother’s brother”) - the custom of patronage of the maternal uncle in relation to nephews; hospitable heterism (a custom according to which a husband provided his wife for the night to a guest).

In the 19th century, clan communities disintegrated. With the adoption of Christianity, by the middle of the 19th century, dowry - the ransom for a wife and the labor that replaced it (the husband lived with his wife’s parents for one or two years and helped run the household), as well as polygamy, polyandry and hospitable heterism - had largely disappeared. At the same time, matchmaking and wedding rituals spread.

Religion.

Traditional beliefs are characterized by animism (from the Latin anima, animus - “soul”, “spirit”) - ideas about the soul as a vital force and the existence of good and evil spirits and their influence on human life. The spirits of ancestors were revered, whose images made of stone, bone, wood and bird skins were passed down as personal amulets. Patron spirits were represented by wooden masks, which were worn during ritual dances.

Shamanism was widespread among the Aleuts, in whose mythology there were ideas about different worlds. The shaman's costume, like that of some peoples of Siberia, symbolized a bird.

In addition to animism and shamanism, there was also hunting magic (from the Greek mageia - “witchcraft”, “magic”), which consisted of rituals for summoning animals, special hunting prohibitions and the wearing of amulets that protect the owner.

At the end of the 18th century, the Aleuts, having experienced the strong influence of Russian culture, were converted to Orthodoxy. Schooling and bilingualism spread. Religious books appeared, translated into the Aleut language. It is characteristic that some Aborigines became missionaries. Aleuts still remain staunch adherents of Orthodoxy; religious rituals are performed in Russian and Aleut languages.

Funeral rite.

The dead were buried in a sitting position. Family burials were placed in small depressions among the rocks. The deceased’s tools, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets (items with supernatural, magical properties) were also placed there. Noble people were buried along with slaves in caves; a painted pillar was placed at the entrance, or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars. The dead were embalmed.

Holidays.

One of the main holidays - the winter solstice holiday - was accompanied by dancing, dramatic performances of hunting scenes and mythological scenes, and the distribution of gifts. The rituals that preceded the hunting season were famous for pantomimes and dancing accompanied by singing and a tambourine. The performers wore special headdresses and wooden masks.

Folklore, musical instruments.

Folklore has not been sufficiently studied; fundamental research has not been carried out. There are fairy tales, heroic epic (narration), or heroic tales, stories about ancient customs, everyday stories, songs, sayings and riddles. Most fairy tales are based on mythological stories. The most common myths are about animal spirits - patrons and etiological (explaining the cause of various phenomena) legends about the original immortality of people, the origin of people from a dog that fell from the sky, etc. The heroic epic includes legends about ancestors, about the fight against cannibals, about the resettlement of people from the mainland to the islands, stories about the campaigns of eastern groups of Aleuts to the west, about blood feuds that led to cruel wars, etc. Everyday stories tell about fishing trips, travels; legends about fugitive Aleuts hiding from the Russians in caves on long journeys; satirical stories - about a hunter who died from gluttony inside a whale. Many plots reflect traditional family relationships: the infidelity of a husband or a jealous wife, the hero’s cohabitation with his cousin’s wife, the hostile relationship of a son-in-law with his brother-in-law (wife’s brother), etc.

Song folklore was extremely developed. At holidays, men, to the sound of a tambourine, sang of the exploits of their ancestors, their prowess in fishing, and their dexterity in operating a canoe. During games, ritual actions and the performance of fairy tales, they sang to the accompaniment of a multi-stringed sword-shaped zither (chayakh), which was later replaced by a guitar.

From the history of economic, social, cultural development. The predatory exploitation of fisheries by American and Russian companies has led to the impoverishment of the local population and the undermining of the foundations of traditional culture. At the end of the 19th century, population growth slowed down, and disease and alcohol led to an increase in mortality. By the 20s of the twentieth century, the impoverishment of the Commander Aleuts had reached its limit.

After the end of the civil war in the Far East, the restoration of the destroyed economy on the islands began, the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and sea hunting. The process of revival of the Aleuts included the creation of an animal farm in 1925, the allocation of the Commander Islands to the Aleutian national region in 1928, the participation of the people in management, the training of national intelligentsia and technical specialists. Since 1935, population growth began, but many of the Aleuts settled on the mainland. Along with traditional types of farming, new industries began to develop - fur farming, livestock farming and gardening.

Modern cultural life.

Schoolchildren from the village of Nikolskoye (Bering Island) study their native language. At the end of the 1960s, the Aleutian Folk Museum was opened, and in 1994, a folklore ensemble was opened. The newspapers "Aleutskaya Zvezda" and "Aboriginal of Kamchatka" are published in Russian. The programs of the State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company "Kamchatka" systematically talk about the activities of the Aleut community, folk holidays, rituals and customs of the aborigines.

In 1996, the Kamchatka Center for National Cultures united all national communities and the regional Association of Indigenous Minorities of the North into the Association of Commander Aleuts. Since 1999, it has been called the Aleut Association "Ansarco".

Published according to the schoolchild's polar encyclopedia "The Arctic is my home", volume "Peoples of the North of the Earth" (M., 1999).

Autoethnonym (self-name).
Unangan/anangin: The self-name unangan/anangin probably comes from antangik “man”, angangik - “living”, “inhabitant”.

Main settlement area.
Within the territory of Russia they live on the Commander Islands, where they were resettled in 1825 by the administration of the Russian-American Company from the eastern islands of the Aleutian chain.

Number.
Number according to censuses: 1897 - 574 (including the mixed Russian-Aleut population), 1926 - 353, 1959 - 421, 1970 - 441, 1979 - 546, 1989 -702.

Ethnic and ethnographic groups.
Due to the island nature of their settlement, the Aleuts are divided into a number of groups that differ anthropologically, linguistically and ethnographically. Along with the three main divisions of the Aleuts - eastern (part of Alaska, Fox Islands), central (Andrew Islands) and western (Near, Rat Islands), smaller, usually island groups, which have their own self-names, are distinguished - sasignan, namigun, akugun, etc. The Aleuts of the Commander Islands are divided into the Bering and Mednov groups and are distinguished by their originality and stability of physical type and enic characteristics in relation to other Aleut groups.
Anthropological characteristics.
Anthropologically, the Aleuts belong to the Arctic local race, but occupy a separate position in it, since they are allocated to the so-called island group of populations. The Commander Aleuts contain a Caucasoid admixture, but, in general, they are similar to the eastern groups, although they form two subpopulations, Bering and Mednov.

http://pda.spbvedomosti.ru

Aleutian language:
The Aleut language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut language family. The island nature of settlement and isolation since 1867 of the Commander Aleuts from their eastern relatives determines the specifics of their language. It splits into two dialects. On Bering Island, the Atha dialect is represented, without significant changes in grammar and vocabulary in relation to the Aleut language as a whole. On Medny Island, a special language of the Creole type was formed, with a mixed Aleutian-Russian system, which the Russians do not understand at all and the Bering people with great difficulty understand.

Writing.
The language is unwritten.

Ethnogenesis and ethnic history.
The early ethnocultural history of the Aleuts is closely connected with the Eskimos (see:). The division of the single Esco-Aleut community, according to various estimates, occurred from 2600 to 6000 BC. at the stage of continental culture, since the vocabulary of the Eskimos and Aleuts associated with marine hunting is different. This is due to the process of development by the ancestors of the Eskimos and Aleuts of various territories of Beringia and the American North. At present, the more preferable point of view is that they were formed precisely on the Aleutian Islands. The most ancient archaeological evidence discovered here (Anangula station, about 8000 years ago) indicates a genetic connection of the local population with Asian cultures. It was on this basis that the Aleuts themselves were subsequently formed. The island nature of the formation of the Aleuts is also confirmed by their anthropological specificity (an island group of populations within the Arctic race), which was formed as a result of island isolation and adaptation to local conditions. The history of the Russian Aleuts inhabiting the Commander Islands (Bering Island and Medny Island) begins no earlier than 1825, when on the island. Bering, 17 Aleut families were resettled. This resettlement was associated with the development of fishing territories by the Russian-American Company. Not only Russians, but primarily Aleuts and partly Eskimos were used as a fishing population. This process continued until the 80s of the nineteenth century. and in the 1900s. the population of Komandor was 532 people. According to reports, it was mixed. Moreover, estimates of the ratio between the Aleuts themselves and the Creoles (descendants of marriages between Russians and Aleuts) vary from 90 to 30%. In any case, the culture of the population of Commander is dominated by Aleut ethnic traditions. A feature of the historical and cultural development of the Aleuts is the dynamics of their ethnic culture, depending on the policy of the Russian-American company, which influenced the relationship between the life-supporting and commodity foundations of their economy. At the initial stage, until 1867, the preservation of a cultural tradition corresponding to the general Aleutian one was noted (harvesting furs, hunting sea animals, procuring marketable food, traditional elements of material culture), or, due to the peculiarities of the geography of Komandor, partially modified (dog sled, borrowed from Kamchatka). The Russians had a significant influence on the Aleuts. The second stage (1871-1920s) of the history of Commander began with the lease of the islands for a period of 20 years by an American fishing company. It is characterized by a partial violation of cultural continuity, which was associated with the intensification of commodity relations, an increase in the share of imported goods, while maintaining the previous types of fishing activities. Since 1891, the Commanders were leased to domestic companies, but the previous trends in the development of their culture, especially in the field of material culture, continued. At the same time, the foundations of traditional social institutions, partly spiritual culture, were preserved.

Traditional clothes.
The male and female Aleut costume was similar in composition, design and materials from which it was made. Shoulder clothing of the closed type - parka - was often made from bird skins, or the skins of sea otters and seals. A camel made from whale guts was worn over the parka. Pants and shoes - torso - were made from the skins of sea animals. “Russian” clothing was widespread in everyday use. During the period of the American and Russian concessions (1871-1920s), clothing almost completely became imported.

Traditional settlements and dwellings.
Aleut settlements had a coastal location. With the exception of relatively large administrative settlements (Nikolskoye on Bering Island, Preobrzhenskoye on Medny Island), they were mostly small and consisted of two or three dwellings. The traditional Aleutian half-dugout, spherical or pyramidal in shape, had a frame made of fin or whale bones, which was covered with grass and turf. In the past, the entrance to the home was through the roof, in the 19th century. through the side wall and the canopy attached to it. The dwellings were quite large and accommodated from 10 to 40 families. Small semi-dugouts for 1-2 families were also built. In the 19th century began to build above-ground log residential and outbuildings.

Food.
The traditional food of the Aleuts is quite varied and contains meat (meat of sea animals, birds), fish and plant components. Meat and fish were used for food in boiled and raw (usually fish) form, dried and salted for future use. A significant portion of the diet consisted of foraging products. http://www.chrono.ru/

Social life, power, marriage, family.
By the middle of the 18th century, the population of each island or group of islands represented an independent territorial entity with its own name and dialect. Presumably these were tribes consisting of clan communities - associations of persons related by blood relations and the name of a common ancestor. The clan group was headed by a toyon. He either received power by inheritance or was elected. His responsibilities included trade and political relations, court cases, protection of sea animal rookeries, and control of other lands. As a military head, the leader had economic advantages only after military campaigns and trade transactions; in everyday economic activities he was entitled to an equal share with everyone. In addition to the leader, the clan group was headed by a council of elders. There are references in the literature to the existence of ancestral community houses for meetings and celebrations.
The Aleuts had slaves (kalga) - mostly prisoners of war. The slave participated in ordinary economic activities and in wars. For bravery or good work he could be released. Traditional social norms remained, associated with the remnants of group marriage (an ancient form of marriage, when a group of men were considered potential husbands of a group of women) and norms of matrilineality (from the Latin mater - “mother” and linea - “line”: accounts of kinship along the maternal line); cross-cousin marriages (from English cross - “cross” and French cusin - “cousin”: marriages of cousins ​​are a relic of a group marriage concluded between members of two clans); polygamy and polyandry, avunculate (from Latin avunculus - “mother’s brother”) - the custom of patronage of the maternal uncle in relation to nephews; hospitable heterism (a custom according to which a husband provided his wife for the night to a guest). In the 19th century, clan communities disintegrated. With the adoption of Christianity, by the middle of the 19th century, dowry - the ransom for a wife and the labor that replaced it (the husband lived with his wife’s parents for one or two years and helped run the household), as well as polygamy, polyandry and hospitable heterism - had largely disappeared. At the same time, matchmaking and wedding rituals spread.

Funeral rite.
The dead were buried in a sitting position. Family burials were placed in small depressions among the rocks. The deceased’s tools, weapons, dishes, ritual masks and personal amulets (items with supernatural, magical properties) were also placed there. Noble people were buried along with slaves in caves; a painted pillar was placed at the entrance, or the bodies of the deceased were hung in baskets between two pillars. The dead were embalmed.

Folklore, musical instruments.
Folklore has not been sufficiently studied; fundamental research has not been carried out. There are fairy tales, heroic epic (narration), or heroic tales, stories about ancient customs, everyday stories, songs, sayings and riddles. Most fairy tales are based on mythological stories. The most common myths are about animal spirits - patrons and etiological (explaining the cause of various phenomena) legends about the original immortality of people, the origin of people from a dog that fell from the sky, etc. The heroic epic includes legends about ancestors, about the fight against cannibals, about the resettlement of people from the mainland to the islands, stories about the campaigns of eastern groups of Aleuts to the west, about blood feuds that led to cruel wars, etc. Everyday stories tell about fishing trips, travels; legends about fugitive Aleuts hiding from the Russians in caves on long journeys; satirical stories - about a hunter who died from gluttony inside a whale. Many plots reflect traditional family relationships: the infidelity of a husband or a jealous wife, the hero’s cohabitation with his cousin’s wife, the hostile relationship of a son-in-law with his brother-in-law (wife’s brother), etc. http://www.kamchatsky-krai.ru

Ornament.


Fairy tales.

THE ONE-EYED MAN AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF A WOMAN INTO A FOX.
There lived a one-eyed man with his wife. He spent the nights with his wife, but as soon as it began to get light, he left his wife and left the house. So he spent the whole day somewhere. His wife did not know why her husband did not come home during the day, where he spent his time, and what he was doing there. She decided to find out.
One day, when he left in the morning, she followed him and reached the place where he had gone during the day. But when she came close to him, she saw that he was missing one eye. As soon as she saw this, she decided to leave him. As daylight approached, she set off. As she walked, she suddenly saw a giant coming towards her. The giant reached her, took her on his shoulders and carried her. He walked with her to the mountain and climbed to the top. There was an underground yurt. The giant threw the woman into the passage of the yurt. She woke up in a dugout and began to cry. Having no clothes, she was very cold and regretted that she had left her husband simply because she considered him ugly:
So crying, she suddenly heard someone say:
- Well, stop crying. Here above you are the skins of earthly birds. Take them and put them on.
The woman looked above her and after a long search saw a basket woven from grass. Searching through it, she found a Kukhlyanka made from crow skins. I took the kuhlyanka, but no matter how hard I tried to put it on, I couldn’t. The Kukhlyanka was too small for her. She started crying again.
And again I heard someone’s voice:
- Leave it, stop crying. There's a grass basket hanging above you. In it you will find the skins of earthly animals, take them and put them on. Stop crying.
When she was told this, she looked up and saw a basket. There I found tanned fox skins. I took them and tried to put them on. When I started putting them on, I felt warm. Having put on the skins, she began to look for a way out of the dugout. I found him and left. I hit the road. On the way, the woman became thirsty. She reached the river, and when she bent down to drink, she saw that she had fox ears. The woman moved on. As she walked, she felt that someone was following her. She turned her head back and saw that it turned out that a fox’s tail was dragging behind her. When she saw this, she tried to free herself from him, but could not. So I moved on with the fox's tail. The woman reached the place where her father used to hunt for seals. She went down to the seashore and began to watch her father kill seals on the sea. So the father stopped hunting seals and went to the shore. He saw a fox on the shore and stuck to the place where she was. Noticing that the fox was not afraid of him, he wanted to take her, but she kept bouncing away from him. Then he threw her seals. Having fed her, he went to his village. And when her father went to his village, she also ran there. When the day was already over, the fox woman came to her father's house. She tried many times to enter the house. But as soon as the fox woman bows her head to go down into the house, her head itself jumps to the side.
So she did not go down to her father’s house, but went into the field and, they say, stayed there.
All.