Travelers who discovered new lands in the 19th century. Forgotten Russian travelers of the 19th century. Preparation of a new expedition
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries that became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign and world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to contribute to the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.
Prerequisites
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century saw the need to search for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia’s connections with other countries. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, our country finally strengthened its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign countries.
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century emerged as talented navigators just at the same time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And this is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for maritime research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets and maritime affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under review, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.
Plan for a round-the-world expedition
Such a project became possible largely thanks to the successful military actions of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia received the opportunity to build its fleet on the Black Sea, which, of course, was supposed to stimulate maritime affairs. Russian navigators at this time were seriously thinking about creating convenient trade routes. This was further facilitated by the fact that our country owned the territory North America Alaska. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.
I.F. At the end of the 18th century, Kruzenshtern presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, he was rejected then. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He received approval.
Preparation
I.F. Krusenstern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, as its student, took part in the war against Sweden, showing himself well then. After this, he was sent for an internship to England, where he received an excellent education. Upon returning to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.
His closest assistant in this matter was his comrade Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He became friends with him in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the Russian-Swedish War of 1788-1790. Soon two ships named “Neva” and “Nadezhda” were equipped. The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.
Swimming
Russian sailors rounded Cape Horn and, entering the Pacific Ocean, separated. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian trading city of Novo-Arkhangelsk, captured by the Indians. During this voyage he also spent the first time in the history of navigation sailing ship around South Africa.
The ship "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Kruzenshtern set off for the Sea of Japan. The merit of this researcher is that he carefully examined the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to investigate what the leadership of the Pacific Fleet had long been interested in. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur Estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.
Krusenstern's contribution to science
Russian travelers significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books that presented the results of their research. Kruzenshtern published “A Journey Around the World,” but the atlas he published with hydrographic applications is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map and conducted valuable research on the seas and oceans. So, he studied the pressure and temperature of water, sea currents, ebbs and flows.
Social activity
His further career was closely connected with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began teaching there, and then headed it altogether. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Maritime Academy. Krusenstern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This has significantly improved the quality of maritime teaching.
In addition, he helped in organizing other expeditions, in particular, he contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to occupy one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. The “Atlas of the South Sea” he published was of particular importance for the development of geography.
Preparation of a new expedition
Several years after his trip, Kruzenshtern insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed equipping two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships each. Before this, the navigator came almost close to Antarctica, but ice prevented him from going further. Then he assumed that the sixth continent either did not exist or was impossible to get to.
In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new squadron for sailing. Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a number of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: Mirny and Vostok. The first one was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was durable and waterproof. However, the second one, built in Great Britain, was less stable, so it had to be rebuilt, rebuilt and repaired more than once. The preparation and construction was supervised by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two vessels.
Journey to the South
A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, rounding the mainland, reached the Sandwich Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During maneuvers around it, many islands were discovered and described. Among the most significant discoveries are the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the shores, as well as sketches of animals seen on the new continent, Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.
During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia was described. Descriptions of the new continent are of particular importance. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to better observe the earth, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.
The meaning of discoveries
The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for domestic and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent changed the understanding of the geography of the Earth. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas and necessary instructions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the expedition participants collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is stored at Kazan University.
Further activities
Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He took part in the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indicator of recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.
Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous journey to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of an expedition to protect the shores of Russian America from smugglers, which he successfully accomplished. Subsequently commanded Black Sea Fleet, participated in for which he received several awards. So, the great discoverers from Russia also made their outstanding contribution to the development of geography.
Open lesson for 8th grade. Education and science in the 19th century.
Russian discoverers and travelers.
At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education developed in Russia. The educational reform carried out in 1803 led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town. In every county town there is a county school. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions. The government paid great attention to the development of higher education.
1. Match the universities and the dates of their formation.
Dorpat 1802
Kazansky 1804
Kharkovsky 1804
Vilensky 1804
Petersburg 1819
Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum 1811-
In which representatives of the highest noble society (A.S. Pushkin) studied.
2. Fill out the table. Educational institutions under Nicholas 1.
Who and what were taught.
Parish schools
Representatives from the grassroots. God's law, literacy, arithmetic.
District schools
Children of merchants, artisans, townspeople. Russian language arithmetic, geometry, history, geography.
Gymnasiums
Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild. We studied science and humanities subjects.
3. Indicate a book publisher whose books contributed to the development of education in the 40s. 19th century?
A. Sytin I.D.
B. Smirdin A.F.
V. Soldatenkov K.T.
G. Pavlenkov F.F.
4.Fill out the table.
Improving the education system has greatly contributed to the development of domestic science.
Branch of science
opening
biology
Dvigubsky I.A.
The earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time under the influence of natural causes.
Dyadkovsky I.E.
Life is a continuous physical and chemical process.
Baer K.M. 1834
The universal law of the development of nature.
medicine
Pirogov N.I.1856
The founder of military field surgery, the First used anesthesia.
geology
N.I.Koksharov 1840
A geological map of European Russia was compiled.
Astronomy
Creation of powerful telescopes. Pulkovo Observatory
mathematics
Lobachevsky N.I. 1826
Non-Euclidean geometry.
Petrov V.V.1802
Developed a galvanic battery. A prototype of an electric light bulb.
Lenz E.H. 1833
Direction Rule driving force induction. A year later he invented the electric motor.
Jacobi B.S. 1840
Galvonoplasty is a method of applying metal to the desired surface using electricity. Letter printing apparatus for telegraphs. 1850g
Shilling P.L.1832
Invented the electric telegraph.
Solve the crossword puzzle. Chemistry, science and production. Using the textbook on pp. 105-106
1. In 1826-27, one of these researchers pioneered powder metallurgy.
2. This researcher discovered the fundamental law of photochemistry.
3. 6. In the 30s of the 19th century, these brothers, serf mechanics of the Nizhny Tagil Metallurgical Plant, built the first steam railway.
4. In 1840, this scientist discovered the basic law of thermochemistry.
5. In 1817, this outstanding metallurgist developed four versions of the technology for producing damask steel.
6. This chemistry researcher developed a method for producing glucose.
7. One of these chemists created permanent chemical dyes for the booming textile industry.
Distinctive features of the development of education and science in the first half of the 19th century were: an increase in the number of higher and secondary educational institutions and representatives of various segments of the country's population studying in them; growth in the number of scientists; the major successes achieved by Russian scientists in the development of domestic and world science on this basis; strengthening the practical orientation of scientific research; strengthening ties between science and industrial production
6. Russian discoverers and travelers.
The 19th century was the time of the greatest geographical discoveries, committed by Russian researchers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors, explorers and travelers in the 17th and 18th centuries, they enriched Russians’ understanding of the world around them and contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. For the first time, Russia realized its long-standing dream: its ships entered the World Ocean.
Working with text insert missing words.
1. Kruzenshtern I.F. and Lisyansky Yu.F.
In 1803, at the direction of Alexander 1, an expedition was undertaken on the ships Nadezhda and Neva to explore the northern part of Pacific Ocean. This was the first Russian expedition, which lasted three years. It was headed by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern, the largest navigator and geographer of the 19th century.
During the voyage, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped for the first time. Yu.F. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of data was collected by the expedition members about Aleutian Islands and Alaska. Islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans.
The results of the observations were presented in a report by the Academy of Sciences. Kruzenshtern I.F. was awarded the title of academician. His materials were used as the basis for the Atlas South Seas" In 1845, Admiral I.F. Kruzenshtern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society.
Working with the map. Relate the information received to the task.
2. Bellingshausen F.F. and Lazarev M.P.
One of Krusenstern’s students and followers was Fadey Fadeevich Bellingshausen. He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.
In 1819-1821, Bellingshausen was entrusted with leading a new round-the-world expedition on the sloops Vostok and Mirny. The expedition plan was drawn up by I.F. Kruzenshtern. The main goal was “acquiring complete knowledge about our globe” and “discovering the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole.”
On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After stopping in Australia, Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands.
During 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors covered about 50 thousand km. The most important geographical discoveries were made and valuable collections were brought back. Data from observations of the waters of the World Ocean and the ice coverings of a new continent for humanity.
Student report. Fill in the missing words.
3. Baranov A.A. and the development of Russian America.
Alexander Alexandrovich Baranov can hardly be classified as a pioneer or traveler in the strict sense of the word. But this was a man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian America by our compatriots.
In search of new hunting areas, Baranov studied Kodiak Island and other territories in detail, searched for minerals, founded new Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed. Established an exchange with local residents. It was he who for the first time managed to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia. Baranov's activities were extremely complex and dangerous. Constant Indian raids cost the Russian settlers not only considerable money, but also their lives. In 1802 alone, more than 200 settlers were killed while attempting to establish a settlement on the island of Sitka.
Baranov's efforts were so successful that in 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of the Russian colonies in America. In 1804, Baranov founded the Novoarkhangelsk fortress on the island of Sitka, and then Fort Ross. In 1825, he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the goal of annexing them to Russia. However, she did not bring good luck. In 1818, he received consent to leave America for his homeland. On the road, on the island of Java, Baranov died in 1819.
Working with the map. Correlate the information received with the task
4. Nevelskoy G.I. and E.V. Putyatin.
The largest explorer of the Russian Far East in the mid-19th century was Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy.
In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855), he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. Here in 1850 he founded the Nikolaevsky post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelskoy's travels were important: for the first time it was proven that Sakhalin is not connected to the mainland at all. And the Tatar Strait is also an island—it is a strait, and not a bay, as was believed.
Efimy Vasilyevich Putyatin in 1822-1825. committed trip around the world and left a description of what he saw for posterity. In 1852-1855. During the expedition he led on the frigate Pallada, the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands were discovered. Putyatin became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan, closed from Europeans, and even sign a treaty there in 1855.
The result of the expeditions of Nevelsky and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.
Collected by Russian travelers scientific information were so extensive and significant that it required the creation of special institutions to generalize and use them.
The most important of them was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845. It has become a center of geographical knowledge in Russia. Organizations of scientific expeditions became regular. Conducting research on the population of Russia and its neighboring countries. Publishing geographical and statistical collections. For the development of economic and geographical research in Siberia, the Far East, the Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Central Asia in 1851, the Caucasian and Siberian departments of the Russian Geographical Society were created.
8.Homework paragraphs 15. 16.
Chapter No. 8
Lecture No. 36
Russian culture in the 19th century
First half of the 19th century
Education and science
At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed in Russia. Conducted in 1803 year, reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial city, and a college in every district city. Parochial schools were also created in rural areas; children of different classes were accepted into them. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.
IN 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (among them A.S. Pushkin),
The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Dorpat (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilna (1804), St. Petersburg (1819).
Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separate. Parochial one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the “lower classes.” They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The district three-year schools accepted the children of merchants, artisans, and townspeople. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. The children of nobles, officials, and merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. Control over universities, which were considered sources of “unreliability,” was strengthened. In 1835, universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.
The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, was increasing. The Imperial Military Academy was opened in 1832, and the Artillery and Engineering Academies were opened in 1855.
The growth of industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.
The development of domestic science has greatly contributed to the improvement of the education system.
Scientific discoveries
| Biology | |
| Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky | Refuting the assertion about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo radical changes over time under the influence of natural causes. |
| Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky | He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process. |
| Karl Maksimovich Baer | A serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms was the work “The General Law of the Development of Nature.” |
| Medicine | |
| Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov | Professor of the Medical-Surgical Academy, founder of military field surgery. During the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during surgery and used a fixed plaster cast to treat fractures. |
| Mathematics | |
| Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Created non-Euclidean geometry |
| Physics | |
| Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov | Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - a prototype of the future light bulb |
| Boris Semenovich Jacobi | He invented the electric motor and electroforming, a method of applying a thin layer of metal to a desired surface using electricity. Invented a typesetting machine for the telegraph |
| Emil Christianovich Lenz | Established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law, and a year later an electric motor was invented on this basis |
| Pavel Lvovich Schilling | Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires |
| Chemistry | |
| Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff | Developed a method for producing glucose. |
| German Ivanovich Hess | Discovered the fundamental law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy in relation to chemical processes |
| Pyotr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky | Laid the beginning of powder metallurgy |
| Science in production | |
| Pavel Petrovich Anosov | Developed four technology options for producing damask steel |
| Efim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics | The first steam railway was built |
| Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov | Created sustainable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry |
| Story | |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin | Wrote the 12-volume “History of the Russian State” |
| Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev | Wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes |
Russian discoverers and travelers
| Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky | In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the expedition members about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials were used as the basis for the published Atlas of the South Seas. |
| Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev | In 1819-1821 Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new expedition around the world on the boats (single-masted ships) Vostok and Mirny. In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After stopping in Australia, Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands. During 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, bringing back valuable collections, observation data on the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind. |
| Alexander Andreevich Baranov | He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. Being a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed. It was he who managed to secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia |
| Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky | In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. |
| Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin | In 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he began to secure the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. |
Art culture
"Golden Age" of Russian Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its “golden age”. She raised the most important social problems, one of the main ones being the problem of strengthening national identity. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country and tried to find answers to modern questions in it.
An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change of artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.
The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century he was more associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.
The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod,” he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thereby a united and strong Russian state. His scientific work “History of the Russian State” was also imbued with these thoughts.
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, and the moral traits of man in previous eras.
One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world.
Russian romanticism was characterized by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, and the establishment of a strong, liberated personality
The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads “Lyudmila” and “Svetlana” became examples of the style of new literature.
In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of their creative work, the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov created romantic works. Their works, unlike the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by optimism in life and an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature of this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, etc. as well as Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”.
In the 20-50s. Another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends in the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works demanding changes.
The founder of the “natural school” (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the striking works of this artistic movement was his story “The Overcoat”, which, along with his other works: “Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”, and others, marked the beginning of the “Gogol period” of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat”,” F.M. later noted. Dostoevsky.
Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky showed the realistic world of Russian merchants to the reader in his first drama “Our People – We Will Be Numbered,” who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchants.
In the 40-50s. The central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the fortress village, its customs and morals. A literary event was the publication of “Notes of a Hunter” by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, which described not only the nature of the Central Russian region, but also the serfs, whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.
The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf peasant were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich “Village” and “Anton the Miserable”. As one of his contemporaries wrote, “not a single educated person of that time... could read about Anton’s misfortunes without tears and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom.”
The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of a modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the ponderous written language of the previous century.
Theater
In the Russian theater, the change in artistic directions occurred as quickly as in literature.
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent ancient and mythological plots and external pomp.
In 20-30 years. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experiences of heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller’s drama “Cunning and Love”). His acting was distinguished by intense emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by their selfless struggle for freedom and justice.
In the 40s A new page begins in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to propose subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin at the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor from the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He conveyed with excellent skill the experiences and everyday life of the “little man” of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Small Theater in its official character.
Music
Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic year of 1812. If previously everyday opera had prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of Russia’s historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".
The entire first half of the 19th century passed under the sign of the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.
The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, artists, only arrange it.”
Glinka managed to establish not only folk, but also realistic traditions in Russian music. He became the founder of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid idea of the composer’s work is given by his opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In it, Glinka glorified the simple peasant patriot and at the same time the courage, fortitude and greatness of character of the entire Russian people.
The development of the national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Rusalka" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.
Painting
During this period, there was a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological subjects, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. Artists' interest in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people, is growing.
The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - “The Last Day of Pompeii” - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of the common man in conditions of a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov outlined his desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-Portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.
The remarkable portraitists Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (president of the Academy of Arts). In them he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. Distinctive feature Tropinin's creativity was a show of a person in his surroundings, doing what he loves. These are his genre portraits “Lacemaker”, “Guitar Player”, “Gold Seamstress”, etc. Tropinin is also famous for being the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. A word that can show people the path to a better future.
The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: “Fresh Cavalier” and “Major’s Matchmaking”, in which the drama of situations and the author’s critical position in relation to reality are visible.
The birth of a popular everyday genre in the 19th century is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring", "At the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of peasants he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the “Venetian school”.
I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with their amazingly picturesque depictions of the sea elements. The painting “The Ninth Wave” became especially famous, being a striking example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifying to the romantic nature of his work during this period.
The center of artistic life in Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in Moscow in 1832.
Architecture
In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire style, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, and strict lines inherited from imperial Rome. Sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings were also an important element of the Empire style. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, noble assemblies, public places, theaters and even temples were erected in the Empire style.
The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures combined into a single whole. It was then that Dvortsovaya, Admiralteyskaya and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.
The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreyan Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.
In Moscow, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were carried out in the Empire style: Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, theatre square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gate, etc.
Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored public buildings in Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.
With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. The “Russian-Byzantine” style begins to spread. Architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory Chamber, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) Station, etc. in this style.
The largest Orthodox church St. Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, the floor was personally supervised by Emperor Nicholas I.
| Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral | Interior decoration St. Isaac's Cathedral |
Sculpture
The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. There are especially many works that are organically integrated into architectural ensembles was created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: “Horse Tamer” on Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos created a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments in Moscow. Located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand towards Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an ancient sword and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national self-awareness in a difficult hour for the Fatherland.
The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and directions, the mutual enrichment and close interrelation of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the social sound of the works created, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, leading to an increase in its influence on the lives of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.
Second half of the 19th century
Education
The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of awareness by society and the state of the need for widespread education of the people. The educational reform carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:
1) zemstvo schools, created by zemstvo forces
2) church schools
3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education
Average educational establishments According to the reform, they were divided into two types:
-classical gymnasiums– they placed the main emphasis on studying humanities subjects; gymnasium graduates could enter universities without exams;
Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry; real schools prepared for entry into technical higher educational institutions.
Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference parochial schools, however, the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type of primary school, covering all provincial and county towns, to also many rural areas. Main type high school there were gymnasiums. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. By the beginning of the 90s. About 300 girls' gymnasiums were opened.
There were also successes in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into force, expanding the rights of universities to govern themselves.
There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical-Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, and Transport Universities, the Electrotechnical University, and the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher women's education was taking place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.
However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. Higher education had just over 1% of the population, with an average of 4%.
Scientific discoveries
| Mathematics and physics | |
| Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev – mathematician and physicist | He designed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal when walking, as well as an automatic adding machine - an adding machine. |
| Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist | By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the establishment of the electromagnetic theory of light |
| Alexander Stepanovich Popov – physicist | He made a receiver-transmitter, and after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For his discovery he was awarded the Grand Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. |
| Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist | He created an electric arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world. |
| Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky | Designed the world's first airplane |
| Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov | Invented the crawler tractor |
| Chemistry, biology | |
| Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist | Discovered the periodic law of chemical elements, |
| Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist | Laid the foundations of organic chemistry |
| Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist | Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal; in his book, he outlined a plan to combat the drought that affected the black soil zone of Russia by planting forest shelterbelts |
| Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist | He created the doctrine of brain reflexes, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditionality of mental and physical phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain |
| Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist | He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and most recent form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If an unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the body, inherent in all representatives of a given species, then a conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of the body, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience. |
| Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists | They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods to combat rabies, and paid great attention to the control of pests of agricultural plants. |
| Geography | |
| Academician, Admiral Fedor Petrovich Litke - geographer | Explored Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific Ocean |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer | He carried out major geological and zoological surveys of Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, and for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: wild horse, wild camel, Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand specimens, 218 new plant species were discovered |
| Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay - geographer | Dedicated his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. He won the love and trust of its residents. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two difficult journeys to the interior of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. |
| Humanitarian sciences | |
| Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov | He created the 29-volume “History of Russia from Ancient Times.” His “Public Readings on Peter the Great,” dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical research method, pointing out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe. |
| Solovyov's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky | He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation “The Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'” at Moscow University. He was the author of the “Course of Russian History”, which he taught at Moscow University |
Domestic science of the second half of the 19th century reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom; they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.
Literature
The main artistic movement of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life on the basis of its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of denunciation, a keen interest in the life of the common man, and the desire to find ways and means to combat the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time scary, in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Sketches”, “The History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadours”. The artistic device the writer uses is grotesque. In his works he takes to the extreme all existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, or for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.
>>Russian discoverers and travelers
§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers
The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched Russians' ideas about the world around them and contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time realized a long-standing dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.
I. F. Krusenstern and Yu. F. Lisyansky.
Lesson content lesson notes supporting frame lesson presentation acceleration methods interactive technologies Practice tasks and exercises self-test workshops, trainings, cases, quests homework discussion questions rhetorical questions from students Illustrations audio, video clips and multimedia photographs, pictures, graphics, tables, diagrams, humor, anecdotes, jokes, comics, parables, sayings, crosswords, quotes Add-ons abstracts articles tricks for the curious cribs textbooks basic and additional dictionary of terms other Improving textbooks and lessonscorrecting errors in the textbook updating a fragment in a textbook, elements of innovation in the lesson, replacing outdated knowledge with new ones Only for teachers perfect lessons calendar plan for the year; methodological recommendations; discussion programs Integrated LessonsIn the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on the Nadezhda and Neva completed the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition, exploring the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. Yu. Lisyanakiy on the Neva opened one of Hawaiian Islands. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named in honor of Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821, the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol had been trading in Alaska since 1790. He amounted to detailed maps Alaska and nearby islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. In 1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained at his post until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848, Nicholas 1 sent the expedition of G. Nevelskoy to the Far East. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the round-the-world expedition of 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and concluded an agreement with Japan. Expeditions around the world were made by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and compiled 50 cards. I. Voznesensky described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands in 1839-40. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began studying the Caspian Sea. In 1848, E. Hoffman and M. Kowalski explored the North. Ural. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was created.