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ALBANIA
Republic of Albania, a state in Southern Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. In the past, this territory was inhabited by Illyrians. Despite repeated invasions by the Romans, Slavs and Turks, the Albanians retained their ethnic identity. During the period of long Turkish rule, there was a massive transition of the population from Christianity to Islam, which is currently the predominant religion.

Albania. Capital: Tirana. Population: 3410 thousand people (1995). Density: 120 people per 1 sq. km. Ratio of urban and rural population: 36% and 64%. Area: 28.7 thousand sq. km. The most high point: Mount Corabit (2754 m above sea level). Official language: Albanian. Predominant religion: Islam. Administrative division: 12 prefectures and 37 districts. Monetary unit: lek = 100 kintaram. National holiday: Flag Day (Independence Day) - November 28. National anthem: "Unite under our flag."

Albania gained independence before the First World War. At first it was proclaimed a republic, then a monarchy. From November 1944 to June 1991, the country was ruled by communists. Initially, communist Albania was part of a bloc led by the USSR, and in 1961-1977 it was adjacent to China. The area of ​​Albania is 28.7 thousand square meters. km, greatest length from north to south approx. 350 km, and the width varies from 145 km in the south to 80-100 km in the north. The capital is the city of Tirana. Albania borders Yugoslavia to the north and east, Macedonia to the east, and Greece to the south and southeast; in the west it is washed by the Adriatic Sea. In the 2nd century. AD On the territory of Albania lived tribes whom the Greeks called Albanians, hence the name of the country. The inhabitants of Albania themselves in the Middle Ages called themselves “shkiptars” (eagle people), this self-name continues to this day.
NATURE
Surface structure. Albania - with the exception of marshy and alluvial coastal plains - is a mountainous country. The mountains extend from northwest to southeast. On its territory there are four physical-geographical regions, three of them are confined to the mountains. Along the coast there is a narrow plain stretching from the border with Yugoslavia to the city of Vlora. This plain is by no means distinguished by flat relief; its surface, especially in the east, is dotted with outlier hills and ridges. After the winter rains, rivers crossing the plain carry large amounts of sand and silt from the mountains into the Adriatic Sea. Thus, the coastline extends towards the sea and is bordered by swamps. After World War II, large areas of the coastal plains were drained, and agricultural land and settlements arose in place of the swamps. The most developed was the strip between Vlora and Durres. However, the plain is still flooded during floods. The country has no convenient natural harbors, and the main port of Durres (in ancient times Epidamnus, then Dyrrachium) is located in a shallow open bay. The North Albanian Alps, located on far north, is the most rugged and inaccessible of the country's mountainous regions. In Albania they are called "cursed mountains". The heavily eroded slopes of these mountains, composed of limestone, are characterized by widespread karst development and are often difficult to access. At first glance it seems that this is an uninhabited area. However, in the summer, cattle are driven there to the upper pastures. Further south, limestone outcrops are more intermittent; where the surface is composed of crystalline rocks (in particular, serpentines), the mountains lower and take on smoother shapes, as, for example, on the Mirdita plateau. To the east, on the border with Yugoslavia, within the Korabi ridge is the highest point of the country, Mount Korabit (2764 m). This entire area is located in the river basin. Drin. To the south of the Mirdita plateau, the mountains lower and take on a smoother plateau-like shape. The surface is replete with basins, which, like beads, are strung along the narrow valleys of large rivers. In each basin of more or less significant size, agriculture is developed. The largest of them is partly occupied by Lake Ohrid, the others contain large cities - Korça, Peshkopija and Berat. South of Vlora, the mountains reach the very shore of the sea. Here again limestone outcrops and dissected landforms predominate, the land being used only as pasture for sheep and goats. In the far south, in the district of Saranda, a narrow coastal plain is developed.
Climate. Long, hot, dry summers and mild, rather wet winters, typical of Mediterranean countries, characterize the coastal plains of Albania. However, in the interior mountainous regions conditions change, especially in the north, where winters are harsh with heavy snowfalls and summers, although generally dry, are often characterized by destructive downpours. In the summer months there is a lack of moisture supply.
Vegetation and soils. In the mountainous regions of Albania, geological conditions are unfavorable for the formation of fertile soils. On serpentines, thin and infertile soils are formed, and on limestones there is often no soil cover at all. In addition, under the influence of heavy rainfall and powerful runoff, soil erosion is actively developing on steep slopes. Soil and soil masses carried down from the mountains are redeposited in valleys, basins and plains, where, due to increased swampiness, conditions are unfavorable for agriculture. The low hills bordering the coastal plain are covered mainly with thickets of xerophytic shrubs - maquis. They are gradually replaced by deciduous forests with a predominance of oak in the middle tier of the mountains. Intensive soil erosion and grazing by livestock (especially goats) adversely affect reforestation. The upper tier of the mountains is more forested; the composition of the tree stand largely depends on the nature of the rocks: coniferous species grow mainly on serpentine outcrops, and beech - on limestone outcrops. On mountain tops and on the thinnest soils, only a sparse cover of turf grasses develops.
Fauna. There are many wild animals in Albania, but they are concentrated in those areas of the plateau and mountains where there are sufficient supplies of surface water. Wolf, wild boar and deer, once found throughout the country, are now pushed into more inaccessible areas.
POPULATION
In contrast to other Balkan countries, Albania has always been ethnically homogeneous. The country's isolation and poverty, as well as the warlike nature of its population, discouraged foreigners, although the strong influence of Greek culture and some migration from Greece contributed to the formation of a Greek-speaking Orthodox national minority in the south of the country.
Ethnogenesis. Albanians descended from the Illyrians, who inhabited at the dawn of written history the part of the country located north of the Shkumbini River. Southern Albania was under Greek influence at that time. Both areas fell under the rule of Roman, Slavic and Turkish conquerors for a long time, but significant differences still remain between the Ghegs living north of the Shkumbini River and the Tosks living south of it. These differences, which greatly hampered the unification and modernization of Albania, were an important factor in the emergence of communist power, and they still influence the country's politics. Among the Ghegs, tall, slender blondes predominate. Their social organization, customs and priorities remained at the tribal level until the modernization of Albania in the 1920s. A quasi-feudal tribal system, comparable to that which existed in Scotland in the 17th century, was formed during the struggle against poverty and a hostile environment in the isolated north of the country. All men carried weapons, and the houses were fortified stone towers. The ability to wield weapons was highly valued - in robberies, in military service as mercenaries and in feudal skirmishes. Sedentary agriculture was considered a despised occupation and was the lot of women; men herded livestock. In a patriarchal environment, leadership belonged to noble families; personal, family and tribal honor were jealously guarded. People's behavior was regulated by a carefully developed system of unwritten traditional laws. On the contrary, the Toskis, who inhabited the wider and rather fertile southern valleys, led a less regulated and more relaxed lifestyle. In dialect and appearance they differ significantly from the Ghegs. In the course of closer contacts with the Byzantine, Turkish and modern Greek civilizations, the Tosks regularly paid taxes and recognized state authority. They practiced sedentary agriculture and lived in compact villages, being small landowners, tenant farmers or hired laborers on the estates of the Muslim nobility. Tosks easily emigrated in search of a more prosperous life or went abroad for temporary work as construction workers. In the 1930s, some educated Tosk people embraced communist ideology, which preached that Tosk peasants were being exploited by large landowners and corrupt officials. In addition to the Greek communities in the districts of Gjirokastra and Sarana in the south of the country, there are a number of other ethnic minorities. Several thousand Montenegrin Serbs live near Shkoder in the north, Macedonians live on the shores of the lake. Prespa in the east; Vlachs (traders, carters and shepherds) are scattered throughout southern Albania. The Wallachians are considered Romanians, although many of them adopted Greek culture.
Demography. Albania's population growth has been hampered in the past by disease, famine, war, migration and feudal strife, but has accelerated dramatically since the 1920s. In 1945, 1,115 thousand people lived in the country, in 1960 - 1,626 thousand, and in 1995 - 3,410 thousand. The natural increase in the period from 1975 to 1987 was 2.2% per year. This record high figure for the whole of Europe is the result of a decrease in mortality, especially among children, while the birth rate remained quite high. Life expectancy was estimated at 68 years for men and 74 years for women. According to 1995 data, the country's population reached 3,410 thousand people. Albanians also live in other countries. There are large Albanian communities in central Greece(including Athens), on the Peloponnese Peninsula and the islands of the Aegean Sea. A large Albanian diaspora is located in Italy - in the south of the Apennine Peninsula and in western Sicily, and small communities are in the USA, Turkey, Egypt and Ukraine. Currently, these ethnic groups are heavily assimilated by the local population. However, several thousand Albanians (so-called Chams) in northwestern Greece have retained their language and culture. Until recently, in the south-west of Yugoslavia there was a compact population of large group Albanian-Kosovars (up to 1.8 million people) - mainly in the former Autonomous Region of Kosovo (even earlier - the Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija, abbreviated Kosmet). Kosovars have been subject to ethnic discrimination in Yugoslavia since the nationalist government of Serbia abolished this autonomy in 1989. In the late 1990s, "ethnic cleansing" in Kosovo led to open armed conflict, during which a stream of Albanian refugees poured abroad, mainly into Albania.
Migration and urbanization. Industrialization carried out by the Communists was accompanied by a movement of population from mountain villages to the coastal plain and foothills. After 1945, industrialization largely stimulated the growth of cities, which traditionally functioned as commercial and administrative distribution centers. In 1930, only 14.5% of the population lived in cities with more than 5,000 inhabitants. In 1950 this figure increased to 20%, and in 1985 - to 34%. In the capital of the country, Tirana, there were 25 thousand people in 1938, in 1950 - 80 thousand, in 1989 - 238 thousand, and in the mid-1990s - 244 thousand. In Durres there were 83 thousand inhabitants, in Elbasan - 81 thousand ., Shkoder - 80 thousand and Vlore - 72 thousand.
Language. Albanian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. It uses the Latin alphabet but is not affiliated with any of the major European linguistic groups. The first examples of Albanian writing date back to the 15th century. The takeover of Albania by the Ottoman Empire reduced the importance of the Albanian language, since the main languages ​​in culture and politics were Greek and Turkish. At the end of the 19th century. The Albanian language again began to play a major role in the life of the country. The differences between the Gheg and Tosk dialects, which were based on the ancient Illyrian language, were partially leveled due to the introduction of a dual alphabet system in 1908. However, a unified written norm was never developed. The official language of Albania is based on the Tosk dialect. Both dialects have borrowed many words from the languages ​​of neighboring countries, including Greek, Serbian, Macedonian, Turkish and Italian. However, as Albanian nationalism grew, some foreign words were eliminated and others were brought closer to Albanian pronunciation.
Religion. Since information on religions was not published under the communist government, only rough estimates exist for the period after 1945. In 1945, 70% of the population professed Islam, 20% - Orthodoxy (mainly Tosks living near the border with Greece, on the southern coast and in cities) and Catholicism - 10% (Ghegs living in the Shkoder region). In 1967, 20 years after the persecution of religion began at the state level, the number of Catholics dropped to 7% and amounted to approx. 130 thousand, but by 1994 it reached 485 thousand. Muslims were divided into conservative Sunnis who adhered to traditional Islam, and more moderate Bektashs, prone to pantheistic views, who numbered approx. 120 thousand. The world center of the Bektash dervish order was in Albania, its influence was most felt in the areas around Berat and Elbasan, as well as in the south of the country. In 1967, the Albanian government closed all remaining mosques and churches, but in 1990 allowed some to reopen. Since the beginning of the 1990s, religious life in Albania began to actively revive.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
On January 11, 1946 Albania was proclaimed a People's Republic. Two months later, the country's constitution was approved, modeled on the constitutions of Yugoslavia and the USSR. In 1976, a new constitution was adopted, the country was renamed People's Socialist Republic Albania and all political power are monopolized by the leadership of the communist Albanian Party of Labor (APT). In April 1991, after the promulgation of the draft of a new constitution, the monopoly of this party gave way to political pluralism. Subsequently, repeated attempts were made to replace the draft constitution with a permanent document, but all of them were unsuccessful due to the unstable situation in the country. At the end of 1998, Albania's political system continued to be based on the 1991 draft constitution, which proclaimed free expression of will in elections, inter-party competition and a democratically elected government.
Electoral system. In the 1991 parliamentary elections, all Albanian citizens over 18 years of age were able to freely vote for any candidate for the first time. Although the ruling Communist Party won these elections, the fact that the opposition won almost 40% of the vote and won 75 of the 250 seats in the legislature did not bode well for the Communists. The following year, communist rule ended. In the 1992 parliamentary elections, the opposition Democratic Party won 62% of the votes and won 92 of 140 seats, defeating the communists, who began to call themselves socialists (they accounted for 26% of the votes and 38 seats). In the parliamentary elections in 1996, the Democrats won for the second time, but the elections were declared invalid and postponed to 1997. This time the Socialists won, receiving 53% of the votes and 99 of 155 seats, while the Democrats had to be content with only 26% of the votes and 29 seats . The remaining votes and seats were split among several small parties.
In each of the above-mentioned elections, either the total number of seats in parliament or the voting procedure itself changed. In 1997, a combination of two principles was adopted: voting in two rounds and elections based on proportional representation. Of the 155 deputies of the unicameral parliament (People's Assembly - Kuvenda), elected by direct universal suffrage, 115 passed through single-mandate constituencies as a result of repeated voting, and 40 on the basis of proportional representation. Under the first system, a candidate must receive a majority of votes, but if none of the candidates receives it in the first round, a re-vote is held a week later, at which the two candidates who received the most votes in the first round are nominated. Under a system of proportional representation, the percentage of votes received by each party directly corresponds to the share of seats that are allocated to that party's representatives in the People's Assembly.

System of political parties. Soon after legalization, more than 20 opposition parties were registered, which entered into competition with the ruling party of communists (or socialists). However, many of these parties did not stand the test of time. Accordingly, although several parties participated in election campaigns in the 1990s, in 1998 it became clear that there were only two major parties in Albania - the Socialist and the Democratic. The Socialist Party of Albania is the successor to the communist party, which was called the Albanian Party of Labor (APT). It was founded in 1941, during the partisan movement during the Second World War, and its ranks gradually grew. The party's rapid growth occurred after the war, when the communists came to power. PLA cells were organized throughout the country, and overall control was exercised by a 125-member Central Committee and a 12-member Politburo. Since 1991, after almost half a century of monopoly dominance, it had to adapt to a multi-party system and engage in competition with other parties. At the 10th congress of the APT in June 1991, its new name was adopted - the Socialist Party of Albania, the leadership was changed, the organizational structure was transformed and a reform program was approved. The party was headed by Fatos Nano, who had a reputation as a reformer in the former communist party. He immediately created executive and steering committees, replacing the Politburo and the Central Committee, and began to advocate for democracy and a market economy, introducing the principles of social democracy into the party. However, these slogans were not put forward in a timely manner, and therefore the socialists were defeated in the 1992 elections. Thus, after 48 years of communist rule, their socialist successors found themselves removed from power. However, after 5 years, this reformed party, which still had 100 thousand members, regained power. But Nano himself again had difficulties, and in the fall of 1998 he had to resign. He was replaced as party leader and Prime Minister of Albania by 30-year-old Pandeli Majko. The Democratic Party of Albania was created in December 1990 by a group of conservatives led by Sali Berisha. This is the first officially registered opposition party. It quickly gained recognition throughout the country; approx. 60 thousand people. The party became a serious rival to the socialists, defeating them in 1992 and forming a government; Party leader Berisha became the country's president. The Democrats, led by Berisha, having come to power, decided to quickly transform Albania into a country of genuine democracy and a market economy. They championed pluralism and human rights, took steps to accelerate privatization in industry and agriculture, encouraged foreign investment and developed international relations. All this taken together foreshadowed success, but the pace of transformation turned out to be too fast, which caused discontent among the opposition. The Democrats rigged the 1996 election and were themselves involved in financial fraud. In 1997, when groups of rioters seized power in some cities, the country was on the verge of anarchy. At the same time, the Democratic Party itself also began to lose unity: two wings emerged in it - the large right and the more moderate left. Therefore, in 1997 (June 29 and July 6), the Democrats had to hold new elections, in which they were defeated, losing power to the socialists.
Small batches. By the end of the 1990s, eight small parties were represented in the People's Assembly. All of them were founded in the early 1990s and are significantly inferior to the two leading parties in terms of the number of seats. The most significant party in question, the Social Democratic Party, represents the moderate center-left wing and has 8 seats in the People's Assembly. After the 1992 elections, she participated in a coalition government with the Democrats and Republicans. Currently, there are the centrist United Party for Human Rights, which enjoys the support of mainly the Greek national minority; National Front (nationalist party); Movement for legality (monarchist); Republican Party (moderate conservative); National Unity Party (nationalist) and Albanian Agrarian Party (peasant).
Government departments. The draft constitution of 1991 replaced the communist constitution of 1976 and gave new functions to state authorities. The formation of the government took place without any major shocks, but after the 1998 elections, unrest occurred in the country, threatening political stability and democratic changes. The executive branch consists of the president, prime minister and cabinet. None of them are elected directly by the people. The president is elected for a five-year term by secret ballot by a two-thirds majority of members of parliament, while the prime minister and cabinet are appointed by the president and confirmed by parliament. A president can be removed by parliament for treason or physical incapacity rather than simply for political reasons, although the country's first president was forced to resign due to the election defeat of his party and a financial scandal. The prime minister and his cabinet can be forced to resign, according to standard parliamentary practice, following a vote of no confidence by the People's Assembly. According to the constitution, the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. In addition to appointing the prime minister and other ministers, the president, at will, sets the agenda and presides over cabinet meetings, convenes and dissolves parliament, calls for the revision of bills, appoints and receives ambassadors, and serves as the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces. All these responsibilities were concentrated in the hands of Sali Berishi, the first post-communist president of Albania, elected in 1992. In 1996, he staged a stunning victory for the Democratic Party in parliamentary elections, and a year later, in early March 1997, he achieved his own election to parliament for a second term with a result of 113 votes against 1. However, four months later the situation in Albania changed dramatically. Many Albanians have lost their savings by investing in financial pyramids. Mass unrest and riots began in the country, and Berisha lost control of the situation. At the same time, criticism increased abroad against the rigged results of the 1996 parliamentary elections. In the parliamentary elections in the summer of 1997, the Democratic Party was defeated, and Berisha was forced to resign. His successor, Recep Meydani, elected in July 1997, used less aggressive methods of governance and shared executive power with the prime minister. In accordance with the constitution, the prime minister and the cabinet he heads are responsible for conducting domestic and foreign policies, forming the state budget and economic programs, concluding agreements with foreign countries and carrying out general administrative activities. With the coming to power of the Socialists, the appointment of Nano as Prime Minister and the election of Recep Meydani as President, the position of the Prime Minister was strengthened. In September 1998, Nano encountered difficulties that he could not overcome and resigned. Pandeli Maiko was appointed the new prime minister.
Legislature. Albania's unicameral legislative body, the People's Assembly, has 155 members elected by universal suffrage for a four-year term. The People's Assembly exercises supreme power on behalf of the people and is the highest organ of state power. In this capacity, it passes laws and constitutional amendments, approves government budgets and economic programs, ratifies international treaties and agreements, elects the president, approves the appointment or resignation of the prime minister and other ministers, appoints members of the Supreme Court, and generally oversees the activities of the government. . In the post-communist period, the People's Assembly became an active conductor of legislative power. Usually the government pursues its course, but the opposition may delay the approval of individual bills. In particular, the opposition opposed the adoption of a draft new constitution in 1994, as well as Berisha's authoritarian rule long before his resignation.
Judicial system. Albania has a code of laws that is applied in the justice system. The country has a Constitutional Court, a Court of Cassation, a Court of Appeal and courts of first instance. The Constitutional Court has nine judges appointed for a term of 12 years. Four of them are appointed by the President, and five are elected by the People's Assembly. This court takes upon itself the interpretation of the constitution and determines the conformity of laws adopted with it, and makes decisions in cases of disagreements that arise within the government, as well as between the national government and local authorities. The Court of Cassation has the highest legal authority. Its chairman and deputy chairman are appointed by the president and approved by the People's Assembly, and the remaining members are elected by this body for a seven-year term, but can be re-elected for a second term. Judges in the courts of appeal and trial courts are appointed by the Supreme Court, composed of high-ranking officials headed by the President of the Republic. All judges are constitutionally guaranteed independence, but this condition has not always been implemented in practice. For example, Berisha's government often put pressure on judges, and once even managed to remove one of the members of the Supreme Court from office. Nano's socialist government relieved itself of court presidents appointed during Berisha's rule on the grounds that they were not sufficiently qualified.
Local authorities. There are 37 districts in Albania. In addition, there are smaller administrative units - communes and villages. Heads of administrations and members of local councils are elected by universal suffrage for a four-year term. In local elections in October 1996, which, according to international observers, took place without any significant violations, the Democratic Party defeated the Socialist Party and strengthened its position in many local authorities. These bodies are responsible for replenishing the local budget and approve expenses for municipal housing construction, utilities, public education, culture and other needs.
Foreign policy. Albania has long been the most isolated country in Europe. Trying to maintain an old-fashioned communist regime modeled on the Stalin-era Soviet dictatorship, Albania's leaders avoided sustained and prolonged contacts with any countries. Albania emerged from World War II as a close ally of Yugoslavia and the USSR. The presence of a significant Albanian population in Yugoslavia and the fear of that country's possible expansion created friction in its relations with Albania. When acute contradictions between the USSR and Yugoslavia became apparent in 1948, Albania actively supported the Soviet side. In 1949 it joined the CMEA, and in 1955 it joined the Warsaw Pact. In the same year, Albania became a member of the UN. In the late 1950s, attempts by Soviet leader N.S. Khrushchev to establish “peaceful coexistence” with the West and improve Soviet-Yugoslav relations alarmed the Albanian authorities. When a heated ideological and political debate between the USSR and the PRC unfolded in 1960, Albania supported the latter. In 1961, it stopped cooperation with the Warsaw Pact Organization, and in 1962 - with CMEA. In 1961-1978, Albania remained China's only ally in Europe. When the “cultural revolution” unfolded in the PRC in 1966, Albania followed the example of its “big brother”. In 1968, after the invasion of Czechoslovakia at the initiative of the USSR, Albania officially left the Warsaw Pact Organization. In the 1970s and 1980s, Albania established diplomatic relations with many Western European countries. After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 (close ties with China were severed in 1978), the death of Albanian leader Enver Hoxha in 1985, and after the complete collapse of European communism in 1989-1990, Albania gradually took a less radical position in international relations. In 1990-1991, Albania tried to normalize relations with all major countries of the world and, of course, with its neighbors on the Balkan Peninsula. It was possible to establish satisfactory relations with Yugoslavia (as part of Serbia and Montenegro), despite deep concern about the fate of the Albanians living in the region of Kosovo. Good neighborly relations were established with Macedonia, and Albanians living in this country were encouraged to cooperate with the current government. Nevertheless, after the turbulent events in Kosovo in 1998, thousands of refugees flocked to Albania, which caused a deterioration in Albanian-Yugoslav relations. After the rights of the Greek minority in southern Albania were guaranteed in the 1990s, relations with Greece were normalized. By the end of the 1990s, they had deteriorated again as many refugees from Kosovo moved into the region, causing discontent on the Greek side. After 1991, Albania improved relations with the United States and the European Union, which was facilitated by significant assistance from Western countries. In 1996, the United States provided Albania with loans worth $200 million, Italy - more than 400 million, and Germany - more than $100 million. In addition, the EU donated more than $650 million in humanitarian aid.
Armed forces. During communist rule and earlier under the pre-war monarchy, Albania's armed forces were the weakest in the Balkans and were used mainly to suppress domestic insurgencies. The Albanian armed forces were formed on the basis of the partisan movement during the Second World War. The military was under strict control of the APT. According to the draft constitution of 1991, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president, who should not hold any party posts. In 1989, there were 40.7 thousand people in the armed forces, incl. in the ground forces 31.5 thousand, the air force 7.2 thousand and the navy 2 thousand. In 1996, the armed forces reached 72.5 thousand people, with the ground forces numbering 60 thousand, the air force 10 thousand and the navy 2.5 thousand. If we take into account other paramilitary organizations, the total number of military personnel reached 113.5 thousand people. The equipment and training of the Albanian armed forces is in need of modernization. In the 1960s, this function was performed by the USSR, in the 1970s by China, in the 1980s Albania’s internal resources were mobilized, and currently all hopes are pinned on the help of Western countries.
ECONOMY
Albania's ambitious plans for economic development relied heavily on aid from the USSR and other Eastern European countries, and after that aid ceased in the mid-1960s, economic growth slowed. The mining industry was especially in need of re-equipment. It should also be borne in mind that in the post-war period, Albania's export markets were in Eastern Europe and the USSR, and vital imports came from there. Relations with Western European countries began to improve in the late 1980s, but lack of investment, poor management and political instability led to a sharp economic downturn in 1990-1991. In 1992, Albania's GDP fell sharply compared to 1989 levels, and urgent measures were required to further develop the economy. The government put forward a reform program that included a transition from a command economy with central control to a market economy and private enterprise. First of all, the privatization of most of the agricultural sector, small and medium-sized enterprises was carried out, and then it was the turn of large enterprises. In 1996, these efforts, combined with foreign assistance, produced some positive results; GDP grew by 9% (according to the EBRD - by 5%) and amounted to $2.3 billion, i.e. $700 per capita, and inflation dropped to a few percent. However, these achievements were overshadowed by rising unemployment, officially exceeding 20%, and widespread corruption. Further progress in transforming the economy as a whole was hampered by the lack of reliable infrastructure and an effective financial system. Ultimately, the financial pyramids that shook society at the turn of 1996 and 1997, political instability in 1997 and the confrontation of forces in 1998 brought the economy to the brink of complete collapse. In 1997, GDP fell by 7%, and the foreign trade balance by 22%. It is difficult to objectively assess Albania's economic situation. Under the communist regime, all information was classified, and information relating to the post-communist period should be treated with caution.
Planning and industrialization. Five-year plans for the development of the national economy based on industrialization have been developed since 1950, the first of which covered the period 1951-1955. These plans, called long-term plans, outlined target figures for the production of products in the main sectors of the economy and regulated the resource provision necessary to fulfill plan targets. Detailed annual or quarterly plans, known as operational plans, defined the specific tasks of each enterprise. However, Albania itself had an extremely limited and weak base for industrialization. Without the country's integration into a larger market and large foreign loans, all efforts made at the national level were doomed to very modest results. Therefore, the industrialization of Albania was closely dependent on assistance from the USSR and other socialist countries, and from the early 1960s to the end of the 1970s - on assistance from the PRC. In 1954, national income was officially estimated at $270 million, or $200 per capita. Subsequently, statistics were not published in the country, but, according to one Western estimate, in 1982 Albania's GDP was approx. $2.6 billion, or $880 per capita. In terms of per capita income, Albania ranked last among European countries. It is estimated that in 1994, 48.4% of the economically active population was in agriculture. In 1996 there were approx. 700 thousand Albanians, including 28% of the country's citizens of working age; their remittances accounted for about a third of Albania's GDP.
Fuel and energy base. Industrialization along the lines of the USSR required the rapid development of Albania's natural resources - oil, natural gas, coal and hydropower. Oil production in Albania was first carried out by Italian companies before World War II. Production volume increased from 13 thousand tons in 1935 to 134 thousand in 1938, of which 105 thousand tons were exported to Italy. After the end of the war, the development of this industry proceeded at a rapid pace. Oil production in 1987 reached approximately 3 million tons, while its reserves were estimated at 20 million tons. The main oil fields are located in the Kučova and Patosi regions. Albanian oil, characterized by its high density, requires special processing. Before the war, almost all oil was sent by pipeline to Vlora, and from there by ship to a refinery in the Italian city of Bari. During the war, the Germans built two small oil refineries in Albania. Pipelines were laid from fields in Kuchova and Patosi to a large oil refinery with an annual capacity of 150 thousand tons that was built after the war in Zerriq near Elbasan. In 1987, Albania produced 2.6 million tons of petroleum products. In the early 1970s, a large oil refinery was commissioned in Fier with a capacity of 450 thousand tons per year. In the early 1990s, the production of petroleum products in Albania was maintained at 600 thousand tons per year, but then decreased to 360 thousand tons (1997). Natural gas production, which began in 1938, declined significantly during the war years. However, in the 1950s it increased significantly and reached 40 million cubic meters. m in 1959. In the early 1960s, new gas fields were discovered. In 1985, 420 million cubic meters were produced. m, but in the 1990s there was a sharp decline in this industry: gas production decreased to 102 million cubic meters. m in 1992 and 18 million cubic meters. m - in 1997. The coal mining industry is poorly developed due to limited coal reserves. The country is dominated by brown coal deposits with low calorific value. The main centers of the coal mining industry are Krrab, Valiyasi (near Tirana), Memalai (north of Tepelena), Mborja and Drenova (near Korça). The development of coal deposits began in 1938, when production was only 3.7 thousand tons. During World War II it increased to 132 thousand tons per year, and in 1987 it reached 2.3 million tons, then in the 1990s This branch of the economy began to decline. In 1992, 366 thousand tons of coal were produced, and in 1997 - only 40 thousand tons. During the years of the communist regime, special attention was paid to the development of hydropower. Among the most important projects of that time was the construction of hydroelectric power stations on the Mati River, near Tirana, and especially a series of hydroelectric power stations on the Drin River in Northern Albania. Electricity generation increased from 3 million kWh in 1938 to 9.2 million in 1948 and 150 million in 1958. In 1970, approx. 900 million kWh of electricity, and the government announced the completion of rural electrification. In 1988, electricity production reached almost 4 billion kWh, of which hydroelectric power plants accounted for 80%. In the 1990s, electricity production declined and power outages became common, but by 1995 it had been restored.

Mining industry. Albania is rich in mineral resources, especially chrome and copper ores. At the end of the 1980s, mining products accounted for approx. 5% of the value of industrial products and 35% of the value of exports. Deposits of high-quality chromite are found in different parts of the country. Chromite mines are located in Pogradec, Klesi, Letaje and near Kukes. The production volume increased from 7 thousand tons in 1938 to 502.3 thousand in 1974 and 1.5 million tons in 1986. Copper ore deposits are located mainly in northern Albania, in the districts of Puka and Kukes. The ore mined in 1986 contained 15 thousand tons of copper. Exploration and mining of ores containing gold, silver, bauxite, nickel, manganese, etc. are underway. In 1958, deposits of iron-nickel ores were put into operation. The ore mined in 1987 contained 9 thousand tons of nickel. The extraction of iron ore was established in deposits in the valley of the Shkumbini River between Elbasan and Perparimi. In the 1990s, production of all these ores fell sharply. In 1997, only 157 thousand tons of chromite and 25 thousand tons of copper were mined in the public sector. Manufacturing industry. Before 1925 there was almost no industry in Albania. It began to develop slowly only in the early 1930s, a process that accelerated in 1939-1943 during the Italian occupation. At the end of World War II, the country had several sawmills and factories producing olive oil and tobacco products, a large brewery, several enterprises producing soap, furniture, cardboard, etc. During the communist regime, a metallurgical plant in Elbasan and a cement plant were built , factories for the production of tannin and canned fish in Vlora, textile mills in Tirana and Berat, a factory for the production of rubber boots in Durres, cotton ginning factories in Rogozhin and Fier, factories for the production of canned vegetables and fruits in Elbasan, Shkoder and Berat, a sugar factory in Korce and several other small enterprises in different parts of the country. In the late 1980s, industrial products accounted for about half of the gross value of goods and services in Albania. The most important industries were associated with the extraction and beneficiation of chrome and copper ores, oil refining, production of electricity, machinery, etc. At the end of the 1980s, the share of food and textile products accounted for only about a third of the country's total industrial output. In the 1990s, the manufacturing industry was in deep crisis. By 1992, its production had declined by more than 50%, and in 1996 it accounted for only 12% of GDP.
Craft production. Handicrafts play an important role in the Albanian economy. They supply building materials (bricks and tiles), agricultural implements (ploughs, harrows), electrical appliances and a wide range of consumer goods (including furniture, carpets, fabrics, silverware, etc.). Most of handicraftsmen are united into cooperatives. In 1990, the government allowed many artisans to work individually, and subsequently the complete privatization of artisanal production was carried out.
Agriculture. The level of agricultural production in Albania is traditionally low, because... natural factors very unfavorable for its development. The resources of arable land are small. In 1943, only 356 thousand hectares were cultivated. In 1964, cultivated lands occupied 521 thousand hectares, which accounted for only 17% of the total area of ​​the country. Most of the arable land is concentrated in the coastal and central regions of Albania. In 1987, there were 714 thousand hectares under arable land, and 397 thousand hectares under pastures. Collectivization Agriculture was accompanied by land reform aimed at eliminating large private landholdings and providing land “to those who work it.” This reform, promulgated by the government in 1945 and approved by the People's Assembly on June 1, 1946, was soon implemented. Its fundamental provisions boiled down to the following: 1) gardens, vineyards and olive plantations were subject to confiscation; 2) religious organizations were given 10 hectares of land; 3) a peasant family of six people received an allotment of 5 hectares and an additional 2 hectares for each person if the family was larger. Following the reform, collective and state farms began to be established throughout the country. The process of collectivization accelerated from the mid-1950s, when a policy was adopted towards full cooperation in agriculture and the involvement of peasants in collective and state associations. In 1967, these farms owned 97% of arable land. It was only in the 1990s that a campaign for privatization in agriculture was launched, and by 1995 most farms became private property. The main crops in Albania are corn and wheat. The area under grain crops increased from 140 thousand hectares in the pre-war years to 350 thousand hectares in 1988. The average annual harvest of corn increased from 134 thousand tons in the mid-1930s to 108 thousand in 1950 and 315 thousand tons at the end 1980s, and the average annual wheat harvest - from 40 thousand tons in the mid-1930s to 200 thousand in 1973 and 589 thousand in 1988; in 1994, the corn harvest was 180 thousand tons, and the wheat harvest was 470 thousand tons. The country has achieved significant success in growing fiber crops, especially cotton, and tobacco. Olive cultivation plays an important role. Other crops grown in Albania include rye, barley, oats, rice, sugar beets and potatoes. In the 1990s, there was an increase in the volume of gross agricultural output, and it now accounted for more than 50% of GDP.
Animal husbandry. Despite some growth in livestock numbers, livestock productivity in Albania is low. The development of this industry is hampered by imperfect methods of its management, shortage of feed, insufficient space for keeping livestock and some other factors. In 1996, in Albania there were 806 thousand heads of cattle, 98 thousand pigs, 1410 thousand sheep, 895 thousand goats and 4108 thousand poultry. Many of these figures fell in 1997-1998, when farmers slaughtered more livestock than usual.

Transport and communications. Railway transport plays an important role in passenger and freight transport. The length of railways in 1990 was only 720 km. The main highway runs from north to south from Shkoder through Durres to Vlora, with branches to Tirana and Pogradec (on the shores of Lake Ohrid). The last line connected the iron-nickel and chromite ore mining areas with the Elbasan metallurgical plant and the port of Durres. Albania's railways are connected to the city of Titograd (Yugoslavia) and are part of the European railway system. Road transport is essential for domestic transport, although the private car fleet is small and the roads are in poor condition. The total length of paved roads is 2.9 thousand km. Maritime shipping options are limited. In the 20th century Durres became the main foreign trade port, having an advantageous location in the central part of the country's coast and connected by a network of roads with the interior regions. Other ports include Vlore and Saranda. There is a ferry connection with the Italian port of Trieste and with the Greek island of Kerkyra (Corfu). There are several airports in Albania. The country's largest airport, Tirana, has regular connections with major European cities. The number of air passengers increased from 30 thousand in 1990 to 200 thousand in 1994.
Trade. Under the communist regime, wholesale trade was completely nationalized. Retail trade was predominantly state and cooperative. Foreign trade was also monopolized by the state. It is known that in the 1960s, import costs regularly exceeded export earnings. To compensate for this deficit, the country took out foreign loans: until 1948 in Yugoslavia, in 1949-1961 in the USSR and other socialist countries, in 1961-1978 in the PRC. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the government decided to equalize the foreign trade balance by concluding barter agreements with Albania's partners. The country at that time provided itself with grain and fuel, which made it possible to keep imports under control. However, the developing industry needed to expand the export of finished products and semi-finished products. In 1982, the value of Albania's foreign trade turnover was estimated at approximately $1 billion. The main export item is chrome ore. Albania is one of the leading suppliers of this ore to the world market. Other exports include iron-nickel ore, copper, petroleum products, fruits and vegetables, tobacco and cigarettes. Important imports include machinery, industrial equipment, chemical products and some consumer goods. In 1948-1978 international trade mainly depended on the political course of the country. Until 1961, the main partner was the USSR, which accounted for about half of Albania’s foreign trade turnover; in 1961-1978 this place was occupied by China. After breaking ties with China in 1978, Albania began to expand its circle of trading partners. For much of the 1980s, its largest partner was Yugoslavia. However, in the late 1980s, Yugoslavia moved into sixth place among Albania's trading partners, while ties with Eastern European countries expanded. Trade with Greece decreased sharply, but ties with other EU countries were gradually established. In 1988, the share of no trading partner accounted for more than 10% of Albania's total foreign trade turnover. In the 1990s the situation changed. In 1996, almost 90% of exports and 80% of imports were related to industrial developed countries Western Europe, mainly with Italy and Greece. Italy accounted for 58% of Albanian exports and 42% of imports, while Greece accounted for 13% and 21%, respectively. In the same 1996, Albania's foreign trade balance was reduced to a deficit of $245 million, and its external debt amounted to $732 million.
Money circulation and banks. The monetary unit of Albania is the lek. Leki are issued by the Albanian State Bank. The banking system changed in 1996 with the establishment of a number of private banks, including foreign ones, primarily Italian. The state budget of Albania in 1989 amounted to 9.55 million leks in terms of income and 9.50 million leks in terms of expenses, and in 1996 - 51.34 million and 72.49 million leks, respectively. Under communist rule, there was no personal income tax; under the new regime, it was introduced along with taxes on value added, real estate, corporate profits and business activity. In 1992-1996, the EU provided Albania with humanitarian aid worth approx. $560 million
SOCIETY
Throughout four centuries of Ottoman rule, tribal and feudal traditions were preserved in Albanian society: strong family ties, tribal ties, the power of local leaders and landowners. However, from the 1920s and especially after 1944, dramatic changes occurred in public life. Both King Zog and the communists attempted to modernize, industrialize and urbanize Albania, while eradicating outdated social values ​​and ways of life. The Communists, using harsher methods and relying on more ambitious doctrines, achieved greater success than King Zogu, but it is difficult to say how much their ideas about efficiency, discipline, productivity and national unity took root in the new managerial and intellectual elite that emerged from the resettled towns of peasants. Labor resources. The contingent of industrial workers, once represented by a few low-paid miners and artisans, expanded significantly after 1945. Workers united in trade unions, which helped maintain discipline and increase labor productivity. The law established an eight-hour working day and prohibited the work of children under 14 years of age. In 1988, 1.5 million people were employed in all sectors of the economy, in 1992 - 1.2 million. The number of unemployed, exceeding 400 thousand in 1992, increased sharply by the end of the 1990s.
Attitude to religion. The constitutions of 1914 and 1928 proclaimed freedom of religion. The state sought to enlist the support of religious communities. Devout Muslims (Sunnis) reorganized their community in 1929, entrusting its leadership to a general council, which included representatives from each prefecture and four major geographical zones. At the same time, the Bektashi Muslims separated from the Sunnis and since then have governed their own order. After long and difficult negotiations with the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Orthodox Church of Albania declared its administrative independence in 1922, which the Patriarchate was forced to agree to in 1937. The organization and politics of the Catholic Church were under the control of the Vatican. With the coming to power of the communists, serious changes occurred in religious life. The communists were sharply opposed to religion, especially Catholicism. In May 1945, a new charter of Bektash Muslims was proclaimed, completely independent from the Sunni one. The government put anti-Sunni leaders in charge of both movements, brought its people into religious communities, strengthened ties with the USSR, and organized support for international communist campaigns such as the peace movement. The same policy was pursued in relation to the Orthodox Church. The Catholic religion came under greater attack, which was reflected in the text of the constitution adopted in August 1951. A softening of policies towards Catholicism began in the late 1950s, when Albania tried to establish contacts with Western countries, especially Italy and France. However, the Chinese influence that increased in 1966-1967 stimulated a new wave of anti-Catholic measures, and on June 4, 1967 the last one was closed in the country. Catholic Church. Nevertheless, religious life in Albania did not stop, and in May 1990, under public pressure, the authorities announced the legalization of all religions.
CULTURE AND EDUCATION
Culture. The influence of Turkish, Greek and Italian cultures hampered the development of national culture. The rise of national consciousness since 1878 contributed to the development of journalism and lyric poetry in the Albanian language. However, cultural vehicles such as schools, bookstores, magazines and newspapers began to appear only in the 1920s and 1930s. The communist government stimulated the development of culture, paying attention to translations of books by writers from the countries of the communist bloc and especially the USSR. Cultural ties with the West began to revive in 1961, after the break in relations with the USSR. In 1945, the first professional theater opened in Tirana. This was followed by the establishment of theaters in Shkodër in 1949 and in Korça in 1950. In the early 1950s, with the help of the USSR, a film industry was created. She produced patriotic films imbued with a national idea. At the end of the 1980s in Albania there were approx. 100 cinemas. Approx. were produced annually. 900 book titles. Currently published approx. 100 newspapers and magazines.

Education. Rulers of the Ottoman Empire until the end of the 19th century. they were not allowed to use the Albanian language in schools and were even forbidden to speak their native language. Only Turkish, Greek and Italian schools operated in Albania. Yielding to the demands of Albanian nationalists and fearing an armed uprising, the Turkish government allowed the first Albanian school to be opened in Korça in 1887. Many schools opened between the two world wars and primary education became compulsory for children aged 6 to 11. Education was better organized in cities (especially in the south of the country), where educational traditions were more strongly expressed, there were more teachers and buildings sufficiently adapted for schools. Children received secondary education in gymnasiums, as well as in pedagogical colleges and commercial schools. There were several private schools: two at the Catholic missions in Shkodra, an American technical school in Tirana and an American agricultural school near Durres. Until 1957 there were no universities in Albania. Children who had wealthy parents or received government scholarships often studied at Italian or French universities. As early as 1939, 80% of the Albanian population remained illiterate. The communist government reorganized and greatly expanded the education system, and in 1955 announced a policy to eliminate illiteracy among adults under 40 years of age. Education became compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 15. Technical schools were created that provided secondary education. In 1960, a three-year reorganization of education began with the goal of combining study with work in industry and agriculture, while the role of technical education increased. There are five universities in the country, as well as institutes: two agricultural, arts, physical education and pedagogical. The University of Tirana, opened in 1957, has 12 thousand students. In 1947, the first scientific institution was opened - the Institute of Sciences with departments of language and literature; history, sociology and economics; natural sciences, and in 1973 the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Albania was created.
STORY
Ancient period and the Middle Ages. The history of Albania is connected with the history of Illyria, which controlled the interior of the western Balkan Peninsula from Istria to northern Greece until the 6th century. AD The Illyrians were organized into self-governing communities, headed by councils of elders. Greek influence was strong in the coastal trading cities and in southern Albania, which was part of the state formed in the late 4th and early 3rd centuries. BC. in the territory of Epirus. Warlike Illyrians, including a considerable number of pirates, in 229 BC. came into conflict with Rome, but in 167 BC. were conquered. Illyria, which included Albania, achieved economic and cultural success under Roman rule. Its ports, primarily Dyrrachium, provided communication with the East; deposits of copper and silver were developed, and ambitious people could make a career by enlisting in the Roman legions. The Roman emperors Claudius, Aurelius and Diocletian came from poor Illyrians. However, Romanization affected the Illyrians little, and they retained tribal quasi-autonomy. When in 395 the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western, Albania became part of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire. Probably at the same time, the Albanian language began to stand out from the Illyrian. The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the destructive raids of the Avars, Huns and Goths, as well as the appearance of the Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries. put an end to the existence of Illyria. Many Illyrians were assimilated by the southern Slavs, while others living in the mountains retained their ethnic identity. It is from them that modern Albanians descended. Albania, located on the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire, was not easy to defend in the 9th century. its central and southern regions were captured by the expanding Bulgaria. In 998-1019, Bulgaria itself again fell under the rule of Byzantium, revived under Emperor Vasily II. The Byzantine Empire was revived again in 1081, but northern Albania came under Serb control. At the same time, the southern coastal regions were influenced by the Normans, who settled in the south of the Apennine Peninsula and in Sicily, and then by the Crusaders. In 1081-1082 the Normans captured Dyrrachium. The Byzantines recaptured this city in 1083 with the help of Venice, which in return received trading privileges in Albanian cities. The Normans returned in 1107 and 1185, but each time they were driven out of Albanian lands. The South Slavs also took advantage of the weakness of Byzantine influence in Albania. In the 1180s, the Serbs captured Shkoder, and c. 1200 Bulgarians conquered eastern Albania. After the capture of Constantinople in 1204 during the 4th Crusade and the temporary collapse of the Byzantine Empire, Albania, which had important access to the sea, became the scene of struggle for almost two centuries until the rule of the Ottoman Empire was established. In 1204 Venice laid claim to all of central and southern Albania, but exercised control only over key ports, including Dyrrachium. According to the treaty of 1210, the internal regions were transferred to the Greek vassal Michael Comnenus, who in 1213 opposed the Venetians, captured Dyrrachium and, before his death in 1215, founded the Despotate of Epirus. His successor Theodore Angel in 1216 managed to pacify the Albanian leaders; in 1217 he repelled the attack of Western knights and Venetian ships on Dyrrhachium and moved his troops to the east, but in 1230 he was defeated in the fight against the Bulgarian Empire, which was revived under Ivan Asen II. Bulgarian troops moved west through Macedonia and Albania and reached the Adriatic Sea, but did not last long there. In 1246, the strengthened Byzantine Empire defeated Bulgaria and moved its troops to the coast of northern Albania, as a result of which the alliance of local tribes with the Despotate of Epirus was interrupted. In 1256 the Byzantines captured Dyrrachium, but in 1257 they were forced to cede it to the king of the Two Sicilies, Manfred, who in 1268 also conquered Vlora and Berat. Western influence increased under Manfred's successor, Charles of Anjou, who made the Albanians his vassals and captured Dyrrachium in 1272, which served as the first step towards an attack on Constantinople. However, in 1276-1277 Byzantium repulsed him on the territory of Albania. Then Albania was attacked by the Serbs, and in 1346-1355 it was part of the Serbian kingdom of Stefan Dusan (reigned from 1331 to 1355). Some Albanian units of Dusan's army migrated south and founded colonies in Greece - in Thessaly, the Peloponnese and Epirus. After Dusan's death in 1355, the empire began to disintegrate. A struggle for power in Albania developed among feudal lords and tribal leaders. The Balshe clan in the north and the Topia clan in the south enjoyed especially great influence. Southern Albania in 1367 went to the Serbian leader Thomas Preljubovic.

Albania under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The Turks first invaded Europe in 1345 and began moving west, conquering scattered Balkan states along the way. Having reached Albania in 1381, they sided with the Topia clan, which prevailed in the fight against the Balsha clan in 1385. Although many Albanian tribes at that time became nominal vassals of the Ottoman Empire, they often sided with Venice, which tried to prevent the Turks from entering the Ottoman Empire. coast of the Adriatic Sea. In 1393, Dyrrachium and Lezha were captured by the Venetians, and Shkodra was bought from the Balshe family in 1394. The Ottoman Empire, having won a major victory over the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, sent troops against Albania in 1394 and 1397, and during the campaigns of 1415 and 1423 conquered its central and southern regions. Because of close proximity Venice and Naples, as well as taking into account the remnants of Serbian and Greek power, the Turks initially behaved cautiously. The strengthening of Turkish rule and especially the preparation for the distribution of lands caused an uprising of feudal rulers and mountain tribes in 1433, suppressed in 1434. However, an even more powerful uprising soon broke out led by George Kastrioti (1403-1468), who was nicknamed Iskender Bey in Turkey, better known as Skanderbeg. The son of a feudal ruler, Skanderbeg converted to Islam and became a prominent Turkish official. When his family's family estate in Kruja was taken away, Skanderbeg renounced Islam and rebelled. Having concluded an alliance with Venice and the leaders of various tribes in 1444 and having a small cavalry detachment based in Kruje, he launched a guerrilla war in northern Albania. Skanderbeg died in 1468, but under the leadership of his son and with the support of the Venetians, resistance to the Turks did not stop until the Turkish army captured Kruja in 1478, and Shkoder in 1479. Gradually the Turks conquered all other areas of Albania; in 1571 the last strongholds of the Venetians, Bar and Ulcinj, fell. During Turkish rule, northern Albania, with its impassable mountains, proximity to foreign countries and warlike Gheg tribes, maintained a semi-independent regime. The Ghegs did not allow Turkish officials and tax collectors into their villages. In each tribe, intra-clan relations were regulated at meetings and inherited councils of elders under the bayraktar (guardian of the banner). During the wars, the Ghegs served as soldiers in the irregular army and in the 18th and early 19th centuries. formed a very significant part of the Ottoman army. However, they fought only under the leadership of their tribal leaders and mainly for the sake of booty (mainly livestock), which was an important help for their poor farms in the mountains. The Turks had greater influence in the center and south of the country, where they levied moderate taxes and allowed Christian rulers to use their lands in exchange for service in the cavalry. With the transition to Islam, the path to power opened up for ambitious and capable people. From the beginning of the 17th century. The increase in taxes by the Ottoman authorities and the growth of extortions in favor of local feudal lords caused unrest among the Albanian peasants. In 1645 and 1649, Turkish rulers suppressed conspiracies and riots organized by Catholic leaders in coastal cities during the war with Venice. Various northern tribes collaborated with Austrian and Venetian forces during several wars between 1683 and 1739. Therefore, the Turks increased pressure on Albanian Catholics, forcing them to convert to Islam. In the 18th century The Ottoman Empire was weakening. Some members of the northern Albanian tribes organized campaigns to recruit mercenary soldiers. Thousands of Serbs left the Kosovo Plain after 1690, partly fearing reprisals from the Turks. At this time, certain landowning families gained great influence and collected taxes from the peasants. The Bushati Pashas of Shkoder ruled in the north and center of the country, and during the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent period, Ali Pasha Tepelena (1744-1822) founded a semi-independent state in southern Albania, Epirus and western Macedonia. Sultan Mahmud II, obsessed with reform ideas and striving to centralize and strengthen the Ottoman state, defeated the troops of Ali Pasha in 1820-1822, and Bushati Pasha in 1831. In the 1830s, less prominent members of the Albanian nobility opposed the Turks, but the reorganized Ottoman army subjected their castles to artillery fire and forced them to submit. The reforms of 1826-1856, which established the regular payment of taxes, conscription in peacetime and the appointment of officials of non-Albanian origin, met with strong opposition and were effective only in southern Albania. The resistance grew into a national movement, which intensified after 1878.
Independence movement (1878-1912). The collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of the Balkan peoples for independence first received a response in Albania after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. At the Berlin Congress, the great powers, as one of the conditions of the peace treaty, proposed that areas of northern Albania be transferred to Serbia and Montenegro. Some Albanian leaders and members of the nobility, mostly Muslims, opposed this decision, organizing the Albanian or Prizrek League. Initially, she received support from the Ottoman government, raised funds, recruited armed fighters and prepared for the fight. The League acquired a more nationalistic and independent character after the annexation of Catholic tribes from Shkodra and Orthodox tribes from the south. In 1879-1880, attempts to cede even minor territories to Montenegro were resisted, and the League agreed to the transfer of the Ulcinj region to Montenegro in 1880 only after the Turkish army defeated the Albanians. The League's southern branch strongly rejected Greek claims to Albanian-inhabited territories in Epirus. There were fears that after the final collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Albania might find itself divided into parts by neighboring states. To prevent such an outcome, the League demanded the unification of the Albanian districts into one autonomous province so that governance, school education and the Albanians themselves controlled the collection of taxes. This national program led to a split in the League: the Muslims of central Albania opposed the program, remaining loyal to Constantinople. The Sultan was also angry, sending troops in 1881 to suppress the League: some of its leaders were arrested, and the Turks managed to win others over to their side. The national movement went underground, spreading among the Albanian diaspora abroad and among political leaders in Albania itself. However, the growth of the movement was hampered by regional, religious and class contradictions. Catholics in the North sought to maintain their traditional privileges. The Muslims of the Kosovo Plain remained loyal to the Sultan, who supported them in the fight against the Slavs. The Muslim landowners of the Center did not want to have anything to do with the dangerous tensions in the border areas, where many Orthodox Christians considered themselves Greeks rather than Albanians. After the overthrow of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in July 1908, newspapers and political clubs appeared, especially in the south of the country. However, the political demands of the Albanians were rejected by the Young Turks, who sought to strengthen Turkey by imposing taxes and conscription on privileged national minorities. This approach outraged even Albanian Muslims, and in the spring and summer of 1912-1913, uprisings swept through the northern regions. The weakness of the Ottoman Empire prompted Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece to enter the First Balkan War (October 1912 – April 1913), which resulted in Turkey losing most of its territory in Europe. To prevent the division of Albania between its neighbors, Albanian leaders, meeting in Vlora, declared the country's independence on November 28, 1912 and formed a provisional government.
The struggle for sovereignty and independence (1913-1921). The most difficult task for Albania was to achieve international recognition of its sovereignty and borders, given the opposition of some Balkan states. Thus, Serbia hoped to gain access to the Adriatic Sea by controlling central Albania, Montenegro sought to acquire Shkoder, and Greece wanted to annex the regions of Gjirokaster and Korça. These applicants were supported by France and Russia. However, Italy and Austria-Hungary opposed it. They preferred to deal with an independent Albania, which could neutralize East Coast Strait of Otranto and maintain the balance of political forces in the Adriatic region. The Great Powers authorized their ambassadors, gathered at a conference in London, to consider the Albanian question along with other problems that arose as a result of the Balkan War. At this conference on December 20, 1912, the independence of Albania was recognized by the great powers. According to the Treaty of London, signed on May 30, 1913, a commission was established that was supposed to resolve the issue of the borders of Albania and make a final decision on the return to Albania of the city of Shkodra, captured by Montenegro during the First Balkan War. The Kosovo Plain, where several hundred thousand Albanians lived, went to Serbia. The border with Greece was established according to a protocol signed the same year in Florence. The Great Powers guaranteed Albania's neutrality, but in fact they established protectorates of Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy and Russia, forming a police force under the leadership of Western European officers and a civil and financial administration under the control of an international commission. According to the decision of the great powers, the German prince Wilhelm Wied was to rule the country. He arrived in Albania in March 1914 and found the country in a state of chaos that did not stop until 1921. Greece and Serbia withdrew their troops from the country, but on February 28, an uprising broke out in the south with the support of Greece. Intrigues in Vida's government led to a civil war that began on May 21, and World War I threatened Albania with a split. On September 3, 1914, Wilhelm Wied fled the country. During the war, Italian, Greek, Montenegrin, Serbian, Austrian and French troops invaded and occupied different areas of Albania. After World War I, plans to partition the country arose again, but Albanian nationalists received strong support from US President Woodrow Wilson. He opposed the agreements under which Southern Albania went to Greece, the Shkoder region to Yugoslavia, and Vlora to Italy, which received a mandate to govern the central regions of the country. Meanwhile, at the congress in Durres on December 25, 1918, the Albanians formed a provisional government. It called elections for the legislative assembly - the Albanian National Congress. The new parliament met on January 21-31, 1920 in Lushnja and formed a government. In the spring, the government and parliament moved to Tirana, which shortly before (February 11, 1920) was declared the capital of Albania. A Supreme Council of four people was created. The National Council (Senate) consisting of 37 people became the supreme authority. A government loan was issued, and measures were taken to create an army and public institutions. Italian troops in the Vlora area were forced to retreat after attacks by the Albanians, and the Serbs in the northeast were also defeated. On December 17, 1920, Albania, with the support of England, was admitted to the League of Nations. However, the question of borders remained open. In October 1921, Serbian troops attacked again and were withdrawn only after strong diplomatic pressure from England and a number of other states. On November 9, 1921, at a conference of ambassadors of the four powers (England, France, Italy and Japan) in London, the independence of Albania within the borders of 1913 was again confirmed. At the beginning of 1922, the last Serbian troops were withdrawn from this country. Until 1924, a small contingent of the Greek army remained in Albania.
Interwar period (1921-1939). Establishing political cooperation between representatives of different regional, social and religious circles who were part of the Progressive and People's Parties turned out to be a very difficult task. In the Progressive Party, which reflected the interests of the conservative part of society, the tone was set by Muslim landowners and the prevailing tendency was to establish political balance. The People's Party represented a diverse coalition of the middle class, primarily Orthodox liberals led by Fan Noli (1882-1965), the Harvard-educated Orthodox bishop of Durrës, and nationalist Muslim officials and military officers led by Ahmet Zogu (1895-1961). , son of the community leader. Noli and Zogu were part of the people's government formed in December 1921. At the beginning of 1922, Zogu disarmed the tribes in the center and south of the country, suppressed the rebellion in the north and on December 2, 1922 became prime minister. However, he soon aroused the discontent of liberals in the south of the country who demanded land reform, nationalists in the north who opposed Serb control over the Kosovo region, as well as local leaders who jealously guarded the traditional autonomy of their areas. Zogu was defeated in the elections in January 1924, resigned in February, and fled abroad in June. Despite strong opposition, Fan Noli formed a government on June 16. He had idealistic plans to modernize Albania through reforms such as transferring land to peasants and eliminating protectionism in the administrative and judicial apparatus. In December 1924, with financial and military assistance from the Serbs, an expeditionary force led by Zogu invaded Albania. Noli and his supporters had to flee the country. Zogu strengthened his position by exiling and arresting his main opponents. On January 21, 1925, Albania was proclaimed a republic, and on January 31, 1925, the National Assembly elected Zoga as president for a seven-year term. On March 7, the country's new constitution was promulgated, giving the president dictatorial powers. On September 1, 1928, the newly elected Constituent Assembly proclaimed Zogu king of the Albanians under the name Zogu I. The monarchical constitution adopted on December 1 expanded the powers of the king, primarily in the field of foreign policy. Direct elections to the legislative body should have been held every four years, but due to the lack of alternative deputies, candidates from the government bloc invariably won. Adhering to authoritarian positions, Zogu, like Fan Noli in the recent past, wanted to modernize Albania. He achieved success in the fight against banditry and in eradicating the traditions of blood feud, helped unite disparate tribes by building roads, hospitals and schools, sent students to European universities, created a system administrative division, introduced the responsibility of officials to the Ministry of the Interior and used European models in the development of codes of criminal, civil and commercial law. The reforms required financial support and technical assistance, which Zogu received from Italy. In 1925, Italian companies were granted rights to develop mineral deposits, and the National Bank, which was under Italian control, began to issue Albanian money and perform treasury functions. The Society for the Economic Development of Albania was established in Rome, which financed the construction of roads, bridges and other public facilities. In 1926, after the weakening of Zog's position as a result of a powerful uprising in the north, Italy began to actively influence Albania's foreign policy. On November 27, 1926, in Tirana, Italy and Albania signed a Treaty of Friendship and Security, and a year later a Treaty on a Defensive Alliance for a period of 20 years, after which weapons arrived from Italy and instructors arrived to modernize the Albanian army, which at that time numbered 8 thousand people. Nevertheless, in 1932 Zogu rejected the proposal to establish a customs union with Italy and expelled many Italian military advisers, and in 1933 he closed Italian schools. The maneuvers of Italian warships near Durres in June 1934 did not help to obtain new concessions in Albania, and since Italy was fighting wars in Ethiopia and Spain, Mussolini followed a more conciliatory course in relations with Albania until 1939. In the mid-1930s, the political arena a new generation emerged, educated in the West. These people hoped to transform Albania, ending corruption and dependence on Italy. After a powerful uprising in October 1935, Zogu appointed a liberal government led by the famous nationalist Mehdi Frasheri. In 1936 the government was dissolved.
The Second World War and the civil struggle in Albania (1939-1944). The course of sustainable development, proclaimed by Zog in 1925, was interrupted in April 1939, after the occupation of Albania by Italy. Zogu rejected demands to turn Albania into an Italian colony and fled to Greece and then to London. The Albanian constitution was abolished, a local fascist party was organized, and the Albanian army was incorporated into the Italian army in 1940. The People's Assembly of Albania was preserved, and a local government was formed. Both of these bodies were subordinate to the Italian Viceroy and his officials. Italy enlisted the support of part of the population of Albania, defending its claims to certain areas of Yugoslavia and Greece. In October 1940, a contingent of Albanian auxiliary troops consisting of 12 thousand people took part in the Italian campaign against Greece. After the capture of Yugoslavia and Greece by the Axis powers in 1941, the region of Kosovo and some areas of western Macedonia that belonged to Yugoslavia, as well as the district of Chameria in northwestern Greece, were returned to Albania. Thus, the cherished dreams of Albanian nationalists came true. Meanwhile, with the support of England and the USSR, the Resistance movement developed against the puppet regimes in the occupied territories. Separate groups of Albanian communists, incited by Yugoslav communist emissaries, founded their own party on November 8, 1941, the secretary of which was Enver Hoxha (1908-1985), a former teacher educated in the West. The communists organized partisan units, primarily among Toscan peasants and intellectuals. In the summer of 1942 they opposed the Italians. In September 1944, nationalist anti-Italian groups united with the communists and created the National Liberation Front, in which the communists took a dominant position. A rival organization, Bali Kombtar (National Front), was formed in November 1944. It developed an ultra-nationalist pro-Western program directed against Zogu and included a demand for the return of Kosovo to Albania. British liaison officers, who appeared at the beginning of 1943, tried to establish cooperation between the National Liberation Front, which numbered 8-10 thousand fighters, and the Bali Kombtar, providing them with weapons and financial support. As the Italian army collapsed, the Germans forced their occupation of the cities and coastal plain. They managed to split the Resistance movement by setting a course for transferring the Kosovo region to Albania, which attracted many members of the Bali Kombtar group to their side. The Germans practically did not interfere with the events taking place in the mountains. Branding their main rivals as traitors, the communists marched from the Toscan lands to the north. In May 1944, they formed the Anti-Fascist National Liberation Council, endowed with the rights of a provisional government led by Enver Hoxha, reorganized the army (numbering 20 thousand people) and turned their weapons against their rivals. The anti-communist factions, lacking cohesion, determination, discipline and weapons, turned to the pro-German government in Tirana for help and thereby completely discredited themselves. In October 1944, the Germans began to retreat from Albania. On November 28, 1944, the communists entered Tirana. Albania during the communist regime. The communists tried to legitimize their rule by holding elections to the Constituent Assembly on December 2, 1945. The communist-controlled Democratic Front of Albania, successor to the National Liberation Front, received 93% of the popular vote. On January 11, 1946, the People's (Constituent) Assembly proclaimed Albania a republic, and on March 14 of the same year adopted the constitution of the People's Republic of Albania (NRA). The government of the country was headed by Enver Hoxha. On April 29, 1946, Titoist Yugoslavia was the first to recognize the communist government; the USSR followed its example on November 10. Great Britain and the United States were preparing to recognize the new Albanian government, subject to the participation of opposition political parties in it. However, this did not happen, and the British and US missions were withdrawn from Tirana. In August 1946, England and the United States opposed Albania's admission to the UN, and only on December 15, 1955, as a result of an agreement between East and West, Albania became a member of this organization. On October 22, 1946, two British destroyers were seriously damaged by mines that had recently been laid in the Kerkyra Strait. Although the mines were laid in Albanian territorial waters, the strait was considered international. Albania rejected England's claims for damages, as well as the decision of the International Court of Justice in The Hague to pay England approx. $2.4 million. Since the end of 1946, Albania provided assistance to the Greek communists who were waging a guerrilla war in their country. The demand of the UN General Assembly on November 27, 1948 that Albania stop providing this kind of assistance was also not fulfilled. In turn, the Albanian authorities were outraged by Greek claims to the southern regions of Albania. In 1948, a serious internal conflict broke out in Albania. Financial and military assistance was required to strengthen the country's defenses and implement ambitious plans for industrialization and modernization. Yugoslavia took over this function. Six economic agreements concluded between July 1946 and June 1947 resulted in the formation of mixed companies, the arrival of Yugoslav specialists and military advisers, and the receipt of equipment and subsidies from Yugoslavia. On June 28, 1948, the USSR-controlled Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties launched brutal attacks on Yugoslavia. Albania immediately terminated economic agreements with that country and expelled Yugoslav advisers. In response, Yugoslavia terminated the Treaty of Friendship with Albania in 1949. In November 1950, diplomatic relations between both countries were severed. They were restored only on December 21, 1953. Enver Hoxha and his supporters also settled scores with the influential pro-Yugoslav group in the Albanian Labor Party (as the Communist Party began to be called in November 1948). Particularly attacked was Kochi Dzodze, Hoxha's main rival, who was the Minister of the Interior (i.e., head of the police), as well as the Secretary of the Party Central Committee. In 1948, Dzodze was arrested as a follower of Tito, and in 1949 he was executed. Political purges also occurred in 1950-1952. Yugoslav influence gave way to Soviet influence: in 1949, 37% of Albania's budget came from the USSR and its allies. Despite difficult economic problems, Hoxha retained power. In 1954, he ceded the post of prime minister to Mehmet Sheh, who came from military circles. After this, Hoxha remained the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labor Party. The death of J.V. Stalin in 1953 and N.S. Khrushchev’s policy aimed at improving relations with Yugoslavia forced Hoxha to sharply change course. Although in 1955-1956 Stalin's supporters were losing their positions in the socialist countries of Europe and Tito demanded Hoxha's removal, the latter managed to stay in his post by appealing, among other things, to Albanian nationalists and calling for a fight against the growing threat of Yugoslav domination. In 1957-1959, economic assistance from the PRC increased significantly, and since October 1959, the Albanian press took a clear pro-Chinese position. On June 24, 1960, the Albanian delegation at an international meeting of representatives of communist and workers' parties in Bucharest condemned the USSR's conciliatory policy towards the West. To top it off, Hoxha spoke at the international meeting of representatives of communist and workers' parties in Moscow in November 1960 with a sharp condemnation of Khrushchev's policies. The split between the communists of Albania and the USSR occurred at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU in October 1961, when Khrushchev made public the essence of the contradictions between both countries, and in December diplomatic relations between Albania and the USSR were severed. In the same year, the Chinese communists took advantage of this, providing Albania with a loan in the amount of $125 million for industrial development and sending their technical specialists and advisers to this country. Since 1962, Albania stopped participating in the activities of the Soviet bloc, in particular in the work of the CMEA, but maintained diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia at a minimum level, and in 1963 it fully restored relations with Romania. Albania ceased trade with the USSR, but a significant portion of its exports still went to the Eastern European socialist countries. China accounted for half of Albania's exports and 3/5 of its imports. Over 17 years, China provided assistance to Albania in the amount of $1.4 billion. The subsequent improvement in relations between the PRC and the United States put an end to Albania’s friendship with China, and in 1978 assistance from China ceased. Albania maintained ties with France, but had no relations with the USA and England. In 1971, diplomatic relations with Greece were restored. In the 1970s, the number of Western embassies began to increase in the Albanian capital. Albania's domestic policies remained unchanged for more than 10 years after the purges of the 1960s. In 1965, a desire for a more efficient decentralized control system emerged. In 1974-1975 there was a wave of repressions in connection with the allegedly uncovered pro-Chinese conspiracy. In 1980-1981, for a short time, there was an improvement in relations with Yugoslavia, but their cooling was facilitated by the protests of Albanian students against Serbian domination in the Yugoslav region of Kosovo. In December 1981, the Albanian press reported the suicide of Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu, followed by Hoxha's statement that Shehu had been exposed as a Yugoslav agent before his suicide. Another purge took place in the country: many people associated with Shehu and who sought to improve relations with the West were executed. At the end of 1982, a native of the north, Ramiz Alia, who was elected as Khoja’s successor, became president of the country, after which assistance from China resumed in a small amount.
Albania after Hoxha. Enver Hoxha died on April 11, 1985, a month after the official statement that Shehu was indeed a Yugoslav, American and Soviet agent, and therefore was liquidated. APT leader Aliya gradually restored relations with foreign countries (with the exception of the USA and Great Britain). An end was put to the hostility with Greece, which since 1940 had formally been at war with Albania. A railway connection with Yugoslavia was opened. Since January 1990, market relations were allowed, and the accused received the right to defense by lawyers. In June, after 5 thousand Albanians took refuge in foreign embassies in Tirana, travel abroad and free choice of religion were allowed. Later these people were allowed to emigrate. In July, relations with the USSR were restored. Big changes took place in December 1990. Three days of student demonstrations, sparked by a blackout in the dormitories of the University of Tirana, were met with reprisals from members of the secret police. The unrest intensified, and the Central Committee of the PLA had to allow the formation of new political parties. The opposition concentrated in the Democratic Party (DP), led by economics professor Gramoz Paško and cardiologist Sali Berisha, who demanded general parliamentary elections. On March 31, 1991, the first open elections since 1923 were held in Albania. The APT won 169 of the 250 seats in the People's Assembly, while the DP won 75 seats. Aliya was reappointed president. Despite the majority of APT members in the People's Assembly (thanks to the support of rural residents and the elderly), the government was forced to resign in June 1991, in the midst of economic and political chaos. This resignation formally ended almost 50 years of communist rule. The coalition “government of national stability,” led by members of the APT and DP and receiving the support of three small parties, tried to resolve the pressing problems, but these attempts were unsuccessful and at the end of 1991 the coalition collapsed. Meanwhile, the APT was renamed the Socialist Party.
The fight for democracy. In the March 1992 elections, the Democratic Party won 92 of the 140 seats in parliament, while the Socialists had 38 seats and smaller parties the remaining 10 seats. Soon after, President Ramiz Alia resigned and his post was taken over by Democratic leader Sali Berisha. Albanians had high hopes that the country would take the path of democracy and economic recovery, but they were disappointed. Instead of the long-awaited prosperity, many residents of the country lost their savings invested in financial pyramids. At the same time, as Berisha's government tried to use coercive methods, political instability worsened. Thus, instead of the promised democracy, the government returned to the brutal dictatorial tactics characteristic of the previous communist regime. Arrests were made of former communists, including Aliya, who were tried for past crimes. They tried to blame the problems that arose in the country on foreign conspirators. Strict control was exercised over the media and the activities of oppositionists. Berisha's achievements were inflated and embellished. Finally, the results of the 1996 elections were rigged in order to retain power. In 1997, Berisha, under pressure from internal and external forces, was forced to announce new elections, and the Democratic Party won only 26% of the votes, gaining 29 seats in the People's Assembly. The Socialists won, receiving 53% of the vote and 99 seats. Having won a majority in the People's Assembly, the socialists nominated themselves for top positions executive power : Fatos Nano became prime minister and Recep Meydani became president. Ironically, the socialists, i.e. former communists had to lead the country onto the path of democracy and free markets. This turned out to be a very difficult task. Nano and his Socialist Party had to regain the trust of the people, solve financial problems, revive the economy, restore law and order and adopt a new constitution. Large-scale purges of officials and judges found guilty of corruption were carried out. However, after initial successes, the socialists led by Nano, faced with endless problems, returned to their previous methods of management. The new government failed to contain the rising crime wave; it found itself helpless in the face of falling production and rapid inflation. To all these troubles was added a transition to violent actions: at the end of 1997, a deputy of the People's Assembly from the Socialist Party shot and killed a Democratic deputy during a political discussion, and in September 1998, the Democrats retaliated in kind by killing a high-ranking Socialist official. By this time, both parties found themselves in a state of war, and the country was split: the Democrats, led by Berisha, were strengthened in the north, and the socialists, led by Nano, were strengthened in the south. In the midst of this confrontation, Nano resigned as prime minister and was replaced by Pandeli Maiko. Restoring the rule of law was not an easy task for Maiko and Meydani, who had to pave the way for the country's democratic development. At the end of 1998, the situation in Albania remained unstable. The departure of Berisha and then Nano from power structures marked the end of the era of “democratic romanticism” with its inherent attitudes towards the accelerated introduction of the market. On the threshold of the 21st century. the country is faced with a systemic crisis and difficulties on the way to integration into the modern world community. Until now, Albania is an agrarian-industrial country in which industry accounts for approx. 12% of national income, and agriculture - 56%. In the spring of 1999, chaos and corruption worsened in the country. Under the guise of the slogan about the advent of the “era of democracy,” a transition from totalitarianism to authoritarianism and an anarchically conceived liberal state actually took place. At a referendum on November 22, 1998, the issue of the need to adopt a new constitution was resolved (“according to European standards, but taking into account Albanian specifics”), in favor of which 92% of participants spoke (a little more than half of all voters took part in the referendum). In the social sphere, a transition from a rural way of life to an urban one (with an undeveloped infrastructure) has begun, and in culture the first signs of a departure from isolationism are only emerging. Orientation towards the West (at the end of 1998, 40 parties in the country advocated joining NATO) is accompanied by a deterioration in relations with neighboring countries. In such conditions, NATO aggression against Yugoslavia served as a catalyst for the aggravation of internal problems. In mid-April 1999, diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia were broken. A stream of refugees from Kosovo has poured into the country. The placement of refugees in southern Albania has led to the infringement of the rights of Greeks living there. Relations with Greece, Macedonia and a number of other states have also worsened. The fate of Albania largely depends on the results of resolving the Kosovo problem, which will be of no small importance for its political and economic stabilization and the establishment of foreign economic relations.
LITERATURE
Louis G. Albania. Physico-geographical review. M., 1948 Silaev E.D. Albania. Economic and geographical characteristics. M., 1953 Culture of the peoples of the Balkans in modern times. M., 1980 Issues of social, political and cultural history of South-Eastern Europe. M., 1984 Popular and national fronts in the anti-fascist liberation struggle and revolutions of the 40s. M., 1985 Short story Albania. From ancient times to the present day. M., 1992

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

LANGUAGE OF ALBANIA

Albanian has two main forms - Tosk and Ghegian dialects.

RELIGION OF ALBANIA

Sunni Muslims - 70%, Orthodox (Greek Orthodox Church) - 20%, Catholics - 10%. From 1967 to 1990, Albania was the only country in the world where atheism was officially proclaimed at the state level, many churches were converted into theaters and cultural centers. It is now the only European country with a Muslim majority.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALBANIA

The country is located in southeastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. In the north and north-west it borders with Serbia and Montenegro, in the east - with the Republic of Macedonia, in the south-east and south - with Greece. The western border is washed by the Adriatic, the southwestern - by the Ionian seas. Much of the country has mountainous and elevated terrain, with deep, fertile valleys. The country has several large lakes, stretching along the borders with Yugoslavia, Macedonia and Greece. One of them - Ohrid - is the deepest in the Balkans (294 m). Albania is one of the smallest countries in Europe - total area the country is about 28.74 thousand square meters. km.

CLIMATE OF ALBANIA

Subtropical Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. The average temperature in July is from +24 C to +28 C, in January - +4 C in the north and up to +7 C in the south, the temperature greatly depends on the altitude. Precipitation (600-800 mm per year) falls mainly in autumn and spring. In mountainous areas the climate is colder (frosts up to -20 C), annual precipitation increases from 900-1200 mm. in the east, up to 2000-2600 mm. and more on windward western slopes mountains At altitudes above 1000 meters in mountainous areas, snow cover lasts for several months. The best time to visit the country is September. The warm season lasts from May to September (July is the warmest month, up to +38 C), but even in April and October weather can be quite favorable.

POLITICAL STATE OF ALBANIA

The government system is a democratic republic. The head of state is the president. The head of government is the prime minister. The highest legislative body is parliament (unicameral People's Assembly). The political situation in the country is quite complicated, Albania is involved in the conflict in Kosovo, there is a fairly large number of independent armed formations on the country’s territory, and the economic situation is quite difficult.

CURRENCY OF ALBANIA

Lek. US dollars and the German mark are freely circulated along with the national currency. Currency can be exchanged at banks and exchange offices, and there is also a free market for convertible currency, which usually operates on the street in front of post offices or the State Bank. Transactions on the street are considered legally legal. Cash is preferred in all cases, credit cards are not accepted, and the use of traveler's checks is also extremely limited. Some large banks They exchange American dollar travel checks into cash without commission, but this is rather an exception. Tipping is required almost everywhere, in restaurants - 10%.

ALBANIA TIME

It is 2 hours behind Moscow.
MAIN ATTRACTIONS OF ALBANIA

Albania has a number of spectacular natural sites that attract the attention of the traveler - craggy peaks and picturesque mountains overgrown with dense forest, beautiful beaches under the warm Mediterranean sun and the azure blue waters of the Adriatic. The country's coastlines are magnificent and could seriously compete with Croatia and Italy. In addition to the beaches of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, Albania has a range of historical attractions to offer, the country's architecture is a frivolous mixture of religions, styles, cultures and landscapes, from monuments of the ancient Greek period to Muslim minarets, from idyllic mountain resorts, many of which were founded by the Romans, to monasteries of all faiths. Relics of one of Europe's longest dictatorships are surrounded by citrus orchards, olive groves and vineyards. Dilapidated factories stand next to breathtaking mosques, ornate Greek orthodox churches may be just steps away from pompous Stalinist-style palaces of culture.

Tirana, the capital of Albania since 1920, is compact and pleasant to explore on foot. Most excursions in Tirana begin from the large open square of Skanderberg in the city center, bounded on the east by the heights of Mount Dajiti (1612 m), the nearby market is also worth a detailed study - it is unlikely that anywhere else in Europe you will be able to visit a real oriental bazaar with all its attributes (including, attention!!, a large number of market pickpockets).

The National History Museum is the largest and best museum in Albania, you will find it next to the 15-storey Tirana International Hotel - the tallest building in the country. A huge mosaic fresco covers the entire façade of the building. To the east of the hotel is the Palace of Culture, which has its own theater, restaurant, cafe and art galleries, and clearly stands out from the low-rise buildings of the capital with its “Soviet” architecture. On south side The building contains the entrance to the National Library, and opposite it is the dome and minaret of the Etem Mei Mosque, built in 1793, one of the most expressive buildings in the city, and near the mosque is the Tirana Clock Tower, built in 1830.

Along the embankment of the Lana River, south of the capital, rise the white marble walls of the former Enver Hoxha Museum, which is sometimes used as a center for various exhibitions and in the future will turn into the largest discotheque in Europe. Further south, on Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard, is the state-of-the-art Congress Palace and Archaeological Museum, which has a fantastic selection of exhibits from prehistoric times to the medieval period.

Tirana's attractions also include the Museum of National Culture, the Museum of Natural History and an excellent art gallery. The city of Shkoder (or Shkodra, and in Italian - Scutari) is one of the oldest cities in Europe and the traditional center of the cultural region of the "Ghegs". In 500 BC. e. the Illyrian fortress lying in its place already guarded the trade crossroads to the west of the city, where the Buna and Drina rivers merge. The city is graced by the imposing Sheikh Zamil Abdullah Al-Zamil Mosque, and next to it is the Muzoe Popullo ("Public Museum"), which has an impressive collection of historical photographs, including those showing the country's recent "socialist" past, and also has an impressive archaeological collection. located in lower floors. Shkodra was also formerly the most influential Catholic city in Albania, and the impressive Franciscan church on Rruga Ndre Mjeda is now again one of the country's main Christian churches. The legendary Rozafa Fortress is 2 km away. southwest of Shkodra, near the southern tip of Lake Skodar. Below the fortress lies the multi-domed Lead Mosque, the only mosque in the city that escaped destruction during the Cultural Revolution of the 60s.

Gjirokaster lies 120 km away. south of Tirana, this is a strikingly picturesque city-museum, spread out on the slopes of a mountain above the banks of the Drina River. The city was well known as a major trading center by the 13th century, but the Turkish occupation, which began in 1417, led to its decline. However, by the 17th century the city flourished again, and was famous for its colorful bazaar, where they sold exquisite local embroidery, oriental silk and the famous Albanian white cheese. Above the Bazaar Mosque, located in the city center, stands the Memedhu Monument, erected in honor of the “renaissance” of Albanian education in the 20th century. The city is dominated by a gloomy 14th-century citadel, now a weapons museum. The buildings of the Ethnographic Museum and the old Turkish baths are located in the lower part of the city.

In Elbasan (54 km southeast of Tirana) the remains of Roman fortifications, a fortress of the 15th century AD, are still preserved. e., which now houses a museum.

In Durres (Duraccio in Italian), 38 km. west of Tirana, interesting ancient city, founded in 627 BC. e. by the Greeks. For many centuries it was the largest port on the Adriatic and the beginning of the famous Via Ignatia, which goes all the way to Constantinople; the ruins of Byzantine and Venetian fortresses are still preserved here. Roman ruins and fortifications adorn this major industrial city and trading port, Albania's second largest city. Most excursions start from the Archaeological Museum, which overlooks the embankment near the port. Behind the museum are the walls of a 6th-century Byzantine city built after the Visigoth invasion in 481 AD. e., reinforced by round Venetian towers in the 14th century. Roman Amphitheater, built between the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. e., still looks quite impressive, and stands on a constantly sunlit hillside inside the fortress walls. The old palace of King Ahmet Zog is located to the west of the amphitheater, and in front of it stands a statue of the country's founder, Skanderberg, and, in sharp dissonance, huge radar dishes installed by the Italian army. When you're in the city center, don't miss the Roman Baths behind the Alexandre Moisu Theater on central square.

Kukes, 100 km. northeast of Tirana, lies above the high shore of the picturesque mountain lake Fierza, just below the top of the almost bald mountain Galiki (2486 m.). The old town formerly stood at the confluence of two rivers, the White Drina and the Black Drina, flowing from Lake Ohrid, but in 1962 the town was moved to its modern location when the government built a hydroelectric dam and the river flooded its location. Now this is a very pleasant place to spend a few days enjoying the clean mountain air and the beautiful scenery of the reservoir, sandwiched by steep mountain slopes, and the local Turismi Hotel is one of the most fashionable hotels famous for one of the best restaurants in the country.

Berat, located 122 km. southeast of Tirana, it is Albania's second most important museum city after Gjirokastra, and is sometimes called the "city of a thousand windows" due to the many windows in its red-tiled buildings, as if specially oriented "to the sun" to the rays were reflected in the glass. Along the ridge that runs above the city, above a rugged gorge, lies a 14th-century citadel that protected small Greek Orthodox churches such as the Cathedral of Our Lady, as well as the Church of the Holy Trinity and the Church of the Evangelists. On the slope below the citadel lies Mangalem, the old Muslim quarter, and a stone bridge of seven arched spans leads to Gorika, the Christian quarter. The city has several fine mosques - the Lead Mosque, the Royal Mosque, the Bachelor's Mosque and the Alveti Tekke ("lesser shrine") where Islamic dervish sects were located. Korca, 179 km. southeast of Tirana, main city Eastern style, located on a high (869 m.) plateau near the Greek border, south of Lake Ohrid. This is the largest carpet-making center in Albania, founded by the Greeks. The city's excellent museums include Muzeu i Artet Mesjetar Shqiptar (Museum of Albanian Medieval Art), Muzeu Historik and Muzeu i Arsimit Kombetar (Museum of Education). Many of the old town's buildings were destroyed by earthquakes in 1931 and 1960, which toppled minarets and destroyed many ancient churches, but some of the colorful buildings of old Korca survived, including a 15th-century mosque in the bazaar area, west of the Ilirija Hotel.

The ancient ruins of Butrint lie almost on the country's southern border with Greece, 160 km away. south of Tirana, and are considered the pearl of the Adriatic coast. Virgil claimed that Butrint was built by the Trojans, but no evidence of this has yet been found, although the site has been studied in detail by archaeologists. Nevertheless, local residents proudly continue to consider themselves descendants of the glory of Troy. For many centuries since the time of the ancient Greeks, Butrint has been a fortified trading city with its own acropolis, the ruins of which can still be visited, baths and rest houses for the nobility. Somewhat below the acropolis, in the thick of the forest, is a theater dating back to the 3rd century BC. e. Nearby are public baths with geometric mosaics, and a little deeper in the forest is a wall from the 6th century BC. e. with Greek inscriptions and a baptistery decorated with colorful mosaics of animals and birds. Nearby, a large area is occupied by a triangular fortress built by the military leader Ali Pasha Tepelena in 19th century. The Ionian coast of the country, especially the "Riviera of Flowers" from Vlore to Saranda, has the most beautiful seashores in this country. Albania has six National Parks, 24 nature reserves and natural monuments, but the protection of all these areas is carried out mainly on paper.

ENTRY RULES OF ALBANIA

Citizens of the EU, Australia, USA, Canada and several other countries do not require a visa. A visa can be obtained either at the consular department of the embassy or when crossing the border by paying the price equivalent to the cost of a visa for Albanians to your country (or 30 - 75 US dollars depending on the length of stay in the country).

ALBANIA CUSTOMS REGULATIONS

The import and export of foreign currency is not legally limited; currency in amounts over 2,500 US dollars must be declared upon entry. The export of previously imported foreign currency is allowed for a year, national currency - no more than 3,000 lek. The import of weapons, pornographic materials and drugs is strictly prohibited, although violations of these rules are often turned a blind eye by customs authorities. The export of antiquities, including stones from archaeological excavations, is prohibited. Free export of copies of ancient works is allowed, which are sold everywhere.

I was a little surprised when I saw that nature Albania quite a bit different from our latitudes. Perhaps it differs only in the palm trees that are sometimes found here. There is a fairly small percentage of people in the country who speak English, which can sometimes lead to difficulties. The biggest advantage Albania are the prices, you can have a good lunch here for a relatively small amount.

Location of Albania

Albania is located in the western part Balkan Peninsula in the Strait of Otranto. Capital - Tirana. Albania's direct western neighbor, Italy, is located approximately 80 km. Most of Albania has mountainous area. About three quarters of its territory consists of mountains and hills with an altitude of more than 200 meters above sea level, the rest consists of coastal and alluvial plains. North Albanian Alps cover the northern part of the country. With peaks reaching 2,700 meters, it is the highest point in the country. In Albania many lakes, the most important of which are the lake Scutari(known in Albania as Lake Shkoder) in the northwest and lake Ohrid And Prespa located along the eastern border. The longest river in Albania is Drin(about 280 km). Other main rivers:

• Seman;
• Shkumbini;
• Vjosa.

Albania has one of the most homogeneous populations in Europe. The largest minorities are Vlachs (gypsies), Greeks concentrated mainly in the southeast, and Macedonians living along the eastern border.

The coastline is perfect place for relaxation, with its clear, turquoise seas and numerous towns such as Ksamile, Vlore and Saranda, which is located in the southernmost part Albania. Note that the coastline extending north from Vlore to the Montenegrin border is flat and contains many sandy beaches . It is a center of mass tourism in Albania. You can also visit sea cities such as Shengjin and Durres.

South of Vlore is located Albanian Riviera, which consists of rocky or gravelly shores with impressive turquoise waters. This area mainly contains villas and family hotels.

Llogara Pass is a mountain pass located at the beginning of the Riviera, near Llogara National Park, which offers stunning views of the Riviera from above - a great place for photos.

For those interested in world history, historical city tours Butrint, Gjirokastra, Berat, will not leave you disappointed.

There are countries that many people have heard of, but know little accurate information about them. However, this makes these states no less interesting for us. Among the list of similar countries where Albania, Montenegro, Bulgaria, etc. are located, you can choose a wonderful place to relax.

Albania - small country, located not as far from us as it might seem. It attracts with its originality and lack of total popularization. I am glad that at least small parts of the map of the civilized world remain attractive from the educational side.

In our article we will look at where Albania is located and provide geographical data that will become interesting and useful if you intend to spend your holiday there.

Geographical position

Let's start with the fact that it is a small European state located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. Taking a more global view, this is the southeastern part of Europe. It will also help to more clearly imagine where Albania is located, a photo of a map of Europe.

The state borders on the eastern and northern sides with Montenegro and Serbia. Albania's neighbor to the east is Macedonia, and to the south and southeast is Greece.

The western outskirts of the country are the sea shores. So, Albania is washed in the west, and a little to the south by the Ionian. Together, the coastline of the state totals 472 km.

Italy is located across the strait called Otranto. The width of this strait is 75 km.

The area of ​​the country is 28 thousand km. sq. Looking at the map, we will see that Albania stretches from north to south. The length in this direction is 345 km. From west to east it extends over a distance of 145 (the widest part) to 80 (the narrowest part) km.

A little history

So, we already know exactly where Albania is. It continues to interest us, so let’s touch on the basic historical data.

The first peoples to inhabit the territory of the country were the Illyrians. Greek explorers in the 2nd century AD. e. they called them Albanians, and this became the prerequisite for the current name. At the same time, the local residents themselves called themselves differently - Arbers, and the country, accordingly, "Arber".

Conquests and surviving identity

The territories of Albania were conquered many times by both neighboring and distant countries. There were Romans, Turks, and Slavs here. However, even after numerous ups and downs, the indigenous people managed to preserve their ethnic identity.

The most important forced change was the adoption of Islam at a time when the conquerors, namely the Turks, dominated the territory of Albania. Today this religion remains predominant.

Albania became an independent state before the First World War. Previously it was a republic, then it switched to a monarchy. After these stages, political control changed several times. Now, as we know, the republican system has been re-established here.

Natural features

We already know where Albania is located and important stages in the country’s history. But there are also luxurious natural resources here. We will talk about the natural features of the territory in this information block.

According to the prevailing forms of relief, Albania is a mountainous country. The rest of the area is occupied by alluvial and marshy plains. Within the country there are four physical-geographical regions, three of which are mountainous.

Mountains stretch from the northwest to the southeast: the North Albanian Alps (the most difficult region of the country, locally called the damned), mountain areas of calmer relief (for example, the Mirdita mountain plateau).

Along the coastal part of Albania there are narrow flat areas. But they are not exclusively flat surfaces: in some places their relief is broken by mountain ranges and hills. Local climatic conditions continue to actively influence the formation of the country's coastline.

The highest point of the country, Mount Korabit, is located in the eastern part, bordering Yugoslavia. The height above sea level of its peak is 2764 m. This area belongs to the area of ​​the Drin River.

The nature of the country contributes to the development of agriculture. The soils of the flat part are suitable for crop growing; cattle breeding is common in all areas.

Conclusion

So, we found out where the country of Albania is located. The region where it is located on the map is in the southeastern part of Europe. The peculiarity of this state is its long history, consisting of many conquests. At the same time, the local population managed to preserve their traditions and recognizable Balkan identity. The global change affected only faith - after the seizure of territories by the Turks, Islam began to predominate.

Its favorable location (wide access to the sea, economically advantageous neighborhood) makes Albania a promising country. Beautiful nature pleases tourists, and favorable climatic conditions support local agriculture.

I would like to hope that after reading the article there will be no questions regarding basic information about the wonderful called Albania. You can easily find out where this state is located by studying the map of Europe.

Albania is a country with a difficult destiny and a strong character. Despite its occupational past, it was able to preserve its rich heritage, centuries-old culture and picturesque nature. Albania is one of the most beautiful countries in Europe. And we will devote our material today to this beautiful country, we will find out where it is located, the most striking sights of Albania, and what you need to see if you are on holiday in this republic.

Where is

Located in the west of the Balkan Peninsula, Albania occupies its coastal territory, washed by the Adriatic Sea. Its neighbors are Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro and Italy, separated from Albania by the Strait of Otranto. Albanian Republic (that's what it sounds like) official name country) covers an area of ​​28,000 km2, where about 3.4 million people live. The capital of Albania, Tirana, is the largest city in the entire republic.

Brief description of the country

For a long time, Albania was under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire, and only shortly before its fall was it able to achieve its independence in 1912. But, unfortunately, its occupation did not end there. From 1939 to 1944, Albania was subject to Italian invaders. Then, for almost half a century from 1944 to 1992, the republic was ruled by the Communist Albanian Party, which completely isolated the state from external influence.

Albania is practically a one-national state, the territory of which is inhabited mainly by Albanians. 80% of them preach Islam, being Sunnis, the rest of the population adheres to the Orthodox and Catholic churches.

Albania is particularly attractive for its natural beauty. There is everything here: a picturesque plain, majestic mountains, clear lakes, and large rivers. Lakes Ohrid, Shkoder and Prespa, the rivers Drin and Mati, as well as Mount Korabi (2764) are part of Albania's uniqueness. The Mediterranean climate enjoys mild winters and hot but not sultry summers.

The entire territory of Albania is rich in ancient Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman cultural monuments and attractions. Most of them are located in the largest cities of the republic: Tirana, Shkoder, Durres, Elbasan, Korça and Vlora.

Sights of Albania

In every town in Albania you can find interesting sights. The rich history has endowed this region with a wealth of cultural and historical monuments. Let's look at some of the attractions and what you can see in Aobanija.

Berat Castle

It can rightfully be considered a museum city. This citadel dates back to the 13th century, representing an example of ancient architecture and history. Berat is located 123 km from the capital of Albania and is one of the most popular places among tourists. The castle rises above the city, offering a stunning panorama of the surrounding areas. Inside the citadel there are buildings of ancient temples and exhibitions of historical artifacts.

Skadar Lake

It is the largest lake on the Balkan Peninsula. It is simultaneously located on the territory of Albania and Montenegro. A very picturesque place that attracts tourists with its flora and fauna, virgin places protected by the state, and clean water. Water transport is well developed here, which makes it possible to enjoy boat trips. The reservoir became especially famous thanks to its churches and tombs built on the islands of the lake.

Rozafa Fortress

The next attraction of Albania is the Rozafa Fortress - located in the vicinity of the city of Shkoder. This is very a nice place, which is a picturesque hill surrounded by two rivers - Drin and Bryan. The fortress dates back to the 3rd century BC. Since its construction, it was able to survive the occupation by the Romans, the capture by the Ottomans, and the confrontation with the Montenegrins.

Rozafa is especially popular among women and is considered a sacred place for those who dream of motherhood. Despite the fact that the fortress has been partially preserved, it is known far beyond the borders of Albania. Tourists are attracted here centuries-old history and a museum opened in one of the surviving buildings.

Archaeological Museum-Reserve of Butrint

Located in the southern part of Albania near the city of Saranada. Almost bordering Greece, this reserve is particularly famous for its excavations and medieval Venetian fortress. The remains of public and residential buildings and structures, the walls of the acropolis, baths decorated with mosaics and the sanctuary of Asclepius were discovered here. Butrint is also popular among tourists due to its proximity to the beaches, being located 2 kilometers from the coast.

Ksamil Resort

The most famous in Albania. Its peculiarity lies not only in its clear water, but also in its amazing beaches. The seemingly incredibly white sand at first glance is actually rocks crushed to tiny sizes. This resort attracts tourists not only with its blue water, but also with its uninhabited islands, which are easily accessible by swimming.

Ruins of the ancient city of Apollonia

They are located 100 km south of the city of Durres. In 855 BC, this city was founded by the Greeks as one of the most important Mediterranean city-states. Monuments that have survived to this day include the Monastery of St. Mary, dating back to the 12th century AD, the Bouleuterion (administrative building of ancient times), dating back to the 3rd century AD, the Odeon (building for musical performances), built around the 2nd century AD, and the ancient Amphitheater etc. Not far from Apollonia there is the majestic monastery of Ardenika.

Customs and traditions

Those who visit Albania for the first time are usually struck by the differences in the same rituals and traditions in different regions of the country. National costumes, wedding rituals and other customs can be very different in two nearby villages or cities. Perhaps this is why there is never a dull moment in Albania, and every new place brings unforgettable experience. In everyday life, the following customs can be distinguished, which are characteristic of Albanians.

When addressing local residents, Albanians use the polite form “zoti” (master) for men and “zonya” (madam) for women. In some provincial areas one can still find echoes of communism in addressing each other in the form of the greeting “shoku” - comrade.

A special theme for Albanians is receiving guests and visiting. If an Albanian has invited guests, then he must make the reception really top level and spend a lot to maintain your status. Guests, in turn, must also show respect to the hosts and bring gifts with them. The art of having a conversation over a cup of coffee is the main sign that you are a well-mannered and worthy person.

Social life in Albania mainly takes place in a form called "jiro". At its core, it is an evening walk along a square or boulevard in a city or village. During the Giro, locals exchange news and gossip. Appearance matters a lot here. As a rule, people wear the richest outfits for such a walk to show their wealth and status.

After being isolated for so long, Albania is only now beginning to reveal its uniqueness and beauty to all visitors and tourists. Stunning nature, architectural attractions, pristine beaches, hospitable locals and inexpensive living make this republic a potential leader among other European countries.

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