What a country Tbilisi is. What kind of city is Tbilisi? Flora and fauna of Georgia

GEORGIA
Republic of Georgia, a state in Central and Western Transcaucasia. Georgia includes two autonomous republics - Adjara and Abkhazia.

Georgia. The capital is Tbilisi. Population: 5431 thousand people (1998). Population density - 78 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 56%, rural - 44%. Area: 69.7 thousand square meters. km. Highest point: Mount Shkhara (5068 m). Official language: Georgian. Main religion: Orthodox Christianity. Administrative-territorial division: 9 territories, 2 cities with the rights of regions, 2 autonomous republics. Monetary unit: 1 lari = 100 tetri. Public holiday: Independence Day - May 26. National anthem: "Dideba" (Glory).

Georgia covers an area of ​​69.7 thousand square meters. km. It borders on Russia in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, and Armenia and Turkey in the south. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Black Sea. The Greater Caucasus Mountains occupy the northern periphery of the country, and the Lesser Caucasus Mountains and the South Georgian (Javakheti) volcanic highlands occupy the southern periphery. The country is home to representatives of approx. 100 nationalities. All ethnic Georgians speak the same language (Georgian) and most belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church. Georgian statehood has ancient roots. Sometimes there were several small kingdoms on the territory of this country, sometimes one large one. During 1801-1864 Georgia was gradually annexed to Russia. From 1918 to 1921 it was an independent republic, and from 1922 to 1991 it was a union republic within the USSR. On April 9, 1991, Georgia declared itself an independent republic. From the 4th century BC. Georgians call themselves Kartvelebi, and their country Sakartvelo (“land of the Kartvelians”). The ancient Greeks called Western Georgia Colchis after the name of the Colchis kingdom that existed there, and later ancient authors called it Iberia (Iberian, or Kartvelian, state).
NATURE
Surface structure. 2/3 of Georgia's territory is occupied by mountains. In the north stretches the Greater Caucasus mountain system with altitudes up to 4500-5000 m above sea level. The highest point in Georgia is Mount Shkhara (5068 m). On the ridges of the Greater Caucasus there are 786 glaciers with a total area of ​​556 square meters. km. In the axial watershed part of the mountains there are famous mountain passes: Krestovy (2384 m), Mamisonsky (2829 m), Roksky (2996 m), which are the shortest routes connecting Georgia with Russia. The southern slope of the Greater Caucasus is divided into deep river valleys and en echelon ridges. Here, in a warm and humid climate, karst is widely developed in carbonate rocks. On the low ridges alone (less than 1000 m above sea level) there are more than 470 karst caves, including New Athos caves (length 3.3 km, area approximately 50 thousand sq. m). On the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus there are large deposits of silver-lead and zinc ores, barite, manganese and coal. Between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus there is a sublatitudinal zone of intermountain basins, where the most fertile lands of Georgia are concentrated. In the west the Colchis Lowland stands out, in the east there are plains on which the historical provinces of Imereti, Kartaliniya and Kakheti have long been formed. From the east, the Colchis lowland is closed by the Likhi (Suram) ridge, which is an important natural boundary separating the western regions of Georgia from the eastern. To the east of the Likh Range, the Kartli Plain, the Iori and Shirak Plateaus (with altitudes up to 500-700 m) and the Alazani Valley (up to 500 m) stand out. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains are separated from the zone of intermountain basins by the Meskheti and Trialeti ranges. The average mountain heights in the south of the country are 2000-3000 m above sea level. There are many basins here, especially within the South Georgian Highlands around lakes of volcanic origin (Paravani, Khozapini, etc.). The territory of Georgia is characterized by increased seismicity; in some areas there are earthquakes with a power of up to 5-7 points (especially in the eastern regions). Mountainous areas in the modern era are experiencing a general tendency to rise (more than 10 mm per year), and lowlands - to lower. The Colchis Lowland is characterized by particularly high rates of subsidence (up to 1.3 mm per year). Many coastal settlements from ancient times are now flooded.
Climate. In the western regions, influenced by the Black Sea, summers are humid and warm, with average July temperatures of 22-24° C. Winters are mild, with average January temperatures of 4-7° C. There is a large amount of precipitation (1000-2000 mm per year) with maximum in Adjara (up to 3200 mm). The predominant part of precipitation occurs in spring; the distribution over the remaining seasons is quite even. The Likhsky ridge intercepts moisture from air masses moving from west to east. In the eastern regions of Georgia, the climate is formed under the influence of continental air masses. On the plains, summers are longer and hotter, with average July temperatures of 23-25° C. Winters are cool, with average January temperatures from +1 to -2° C. Average annual precipitation is 400-600 mm, the maximum occurs in late spring and early summer. On the slopes of the Georgian mountains, average July temperatures drop to 4-6 ° C; in the highlands, average January temperatures can reach -10-16 ° C. Average annual precipitation ranges from 1600-2800 mm in the west to 1000-1800 mm in the east of the Greater Caucasus and up to 600-700 mm on the South Georgian Highlands. The weather in the mountains changes quickly. Sudden cold snaps are accompanied by heavy snowfalls, downpours, hail and hair dryers, causing significant damage to the economy.
Rivers. In Georgia approx. 25 thousand rivers, many of them are used for energy production and as sources of irrigation. They feed mainly on melted snow and glacial waters and atmospheric precipitation. In foothill areas composed of carbonate rocks, groundwater plays a significant role in feeding rivers. The rivers of Western Georgia are full of water throughout the year, but in the east, river flow decreases in winter and summer. Most of the rivers flow into the Black Sea, the rest into the Caspian Sea. The most big river Western Georgia - Rioni, 327 km long, originates in the Greater Caucasus and flows into the Black Sea near Poti. The large Kura River (Mtkvari in Georgian) begins in the mountains of northeastern Turkey, crosses southern and eastern Georgia and flows into the Caspian Sea on the territory of Azerbaijan.
Soils. There are three main soil-geographical regions in Georgia: western, eastern and southern. The lowlands of the western region (between the Likhsky ridge and the Black Sea) are characterized by moist peat soils suitable for growing corn; in the foothills there are subtropical red and yellow soils, which are ideal for growing grapes, tea and tobacco; in the higher areas of Megrelia, Abkhazia and Svaneti - brown or carbonate forest and mountain soils. The eastern region is dominated by ancient alluvial soils. On the Lower Kartalinskaya Plain, chestnut soils are common, suitable for cultivating vegetables, fruits and grain crops. The black and brown soils of the Kakheti Plain are used mainly for grain crops and vineyards, although in the Gardabani and Sagarejo regions, southeast of Tbilisi, these soils are infertile due to the arid climate. The southern region is confined to the foothills and southern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus and the South Georgian Highlands. It is characterized by a combination of brown and mountain meadow soils used for the cultivation of grain crops, vegetables and, to a lesser extent, grapes.
Vegetation and fauna. The flora of Georgia is very diverse: more than 5,000 species of flowering plants alone are found here. Depending on the climatic features and the absolute altitude of the area, several zones and vertical belts of vegetation are distinguished (from steppe to alpine). Forests are distributed mainly in the mountains and cover almost 20% of the country's territory. In the west of Georgia they descend to sea level, and in the east their lower border is at altitudes from 600 to 800 m above sea level. The forests of western Georgia are especially rich and diverse. Their lower belt (up to 1000-1200 m) is dominated by broad-leaved species (oak, hornbeam, chestnut, maple, beech, etc.) with an evergreen undergrowth of Pontic rhododendron, cherry laurel, boxwood, Colchis holly, Colchis broom, Caucasian blueberry. For this purpose the so-called The Colchis forest is characterized by an abundance of vines - ivy, clematis, and liana; in some places it takes on the appearance of an impenetrable thicket. In the swampy forests of the Colchis Lowland itself, alder predominates and there is almost no undergrowth. In some areas of the coast of Abkhazia, rare endemic species are found, for example, Pitsunda pine - a relict of the Tertiary Crimean-Caucasian flora. Over the past millennia, grapes and fruit crops have been cultivated in the valleys. In western Georgia, above the belt of Colchis forests and up to the upper forest boundary (1700-1800 m), mixed forests are common, which combine beech and spruce-fir, and less often pine stands. At the upper border of the forest there are birch forests with an admixture of rowan and thickets of rhododendron. The forests of eastern Georgia are less rich. In the upper mountain belt (up to 2300-2400 m) spruce-fir forest stands are common, found to the west of the Ksani River, and in more eastern regions there are only pine and pine-birch forests. Below, coniferous forests give way to beech and then oak and hornbeam forests. In the far east of the country there are dry steppes and xerophytic woodlands with species such as hackberry and pistachio. In the valleys of the Kura, Alazani, Iori and other rivers, floodplain tugai forests of aspen, willow, silver poplar, oak, and dogwood have been preserved. Subalpine and alpine meadows distributed up to altitudes of 2800-3000 m and occupy up to 25% of the area of ​​mountain territories. The subalpine meadows of western Georgia are characterized by lush tall grasses with a large participation of Umbelliferae, Legumes and Lamiaceae. Low-grass alpine meadows are distributed in fragments, alternating with stone placers, rock outcrops and glaciers. In the west of Georgia, the alpine belt rises to 3000 m, in the east - to 3600 m above sea level.
Animal world Georgia is diverse, with over 100 species of mammals, 330 species of birds and 160 species of fish. Many of them are endemic or semi-endemic, for example, the Artvinian lizard and the Kuban tur (whose horns are used as vessels for wine in Georgia). The fauna of the steppes of eastern Georgia is very unique. Until recently, the goitered gazelle was found there, surviving only in certain areas of the Shirak steppe. The striped hyena is found in the Gardabani steppe and Alazani valley. Other predators include the fox, jackal, and jungle cat. Wolves are common in livestock-raising areas. Rodents are typical for the steppes: jerboas, voles, hamsters. Common birds include tree sparrow, gray partridge, quail, and steppe eagle. Characterized by an abundance of lizards and turtles, as well as snakes (common and water snakes, western boas, yellow-bellied snakes). Viper is found in the Eldar and Shirak steppes. The wildlife of forests is richest. In many areas, Caucasian deer, roe deer, wild boar, brown hare, squirrel are common, and among predators - brown bear, wolf, jackal, lynx, forest cat and fox. The badger causes great damage to agriculture. The forests of Georgia are famous for the abundance and diversity of birds. Common species are chaffinch, black-headed chickadee, great tit, greenfinch, blackbird, etc. Among the species of birds of prey listed in the Red Book of Georgia, there are (mainly in nature reserves) bearded vulture, golden eagle, griffon vulture, black vulture, etc. In some areas of Colchis and Kakheti you can still see pheasants. Of the reptiles in the forests of Georgia, the most numerous are lizards, marsh turtles and snakes (snakes, copperhead, Caucasian viper). The high-mountain fauna is better preserved on the Main Caucasus Range. In its western part the Kuban tur is found, in the eastern part - the Dagestan tur. Both species descend into the forest belt for the winter. The chamois is almost ubiquitous, and in the east the bezoar goat is found. Among the characteristic birds of the highlands, we note the Caucasian black grouse, chukar and bearded vulture. Trout is caught in mountain rivers.
State of the environment. One of the main environmental problems is air pollution in industrial cities, especially in the center of metallurgy - Rustavi. Increased deforestation, soil erosion and pollution of the Black Sea are serious concerns. There are difficulties with the supply of drinking water to the population and the disposal of wastewater. Georgia is a party to many international agreements on environmental protection.
POPULATION
According to the last census of 1989, 5449 thousand people lived in Georgia. Over the previous 10 years (compared to the 1979 census data), population growth was 8.7%. The urban population increased by 16.7%, and the rural population by only 0.3%. In 1990 approx. 56% of the population lived in cities and approx. 44% - in rural areas. The capital city of Tbilisi is home to 1,260 thousand people (about a quarter of the country's population); compared to 1979, the number of residents of the country increased by 18%, which is largely due to the constant outflow of population from rural areas. Every year, 23 thousand rural residents moved to the cities of Georgia, which led to a sharp decline in the population in a number of rural areas. Ethnic conflict in Abkhazia (1993-1994) led to the relocation to Tbilisi of ca. 80 thousand refugees. In 1993-1998, the population of Georgia changed relatively little and was maintained at the level of 5.0-5.4 million people. Data from 1993 indicated a slight decrease in population, mainly due to emigration to Russia. After the declaration of independence in Georgia, the birth rate decreased significantly - to a level of 2.2 per 1000 people in 1995 and 1.6 in 1997. According to official statistics as of July 1997, 5,160 thousand people lived in Georgia. The gender and age structure of the population was as follows: 22% of the population under 14 years of age (boys - 581 thousand, girls - 558 thousand), 66% aged 15 to 64 years (men - 1,640 thousand, women - 1,766 thousand. ) and 12% aged 65 years and older (men - 231 thousand, women - 382 thousand). According to 1998 estimates, the population of Georgia was 5431 thousand people. In 1989, almost a third of the population was under the age group of 19 years and approx. 15% - for the group 60 years and older. There was an aging of the population: between 1979 and 1989 the number of people over working age increased by 1/4. Average life expectancy in 1985-1986 was 71.5 years (for men 68.7 years and for women 75.1 years) and has increased slightly since the 1970s. However, in 1997 this figure dropped to 65 years (61.6 for men and 68.5 for women). In 1989, the infant mortality rate was approx. 20 per 1000 births (versus 25 in 1985). The average family size was 4.1 people, although there were significant differences between urban and rural areas and between different regions of the country. The infant mortality rate rose to 50.1 per 1000 in 1997 as a result of the sharp deterioration of the health care system and the general decline in the quality of life in the country.
Ethnic composition. Georgia is a complex multinational society. In 1989, Georgians made up 70.1% of the population (compared to 68.8% in 1979). National minorities included Armenians (8.1%), Russians (6.3%), Azerbaijanis (5.7%), Ossetians (3.0%), Greeks (1.9%) and Abkhazians (1.8%). ). In the period 1979-1989, there was a reduction in the share of all of the listed groups (except for Azerbaijanis and Abkhazians) due to assimilation and departure from Georgia. The Abkhaz, a distinct Caucasian ethnic group, have their own autonomous republic, where they made up 17.8% of the population in 1989. Ossetians, Iranian-speaking people of the Greater Caucasus, for the most part live in the territory of the former autonomous region of South Ossetia, where in 1989 they accounted for 66.2% of the population. Outside its borders, most Ossetians lived dispersed throughout eastern Georgia. Adjarians, Georgians who converted to Islam, have their own autonomous republic, where in 1989 they made up 82.8% of the population. Since the mid-1980s, the level of national self-awareness of the population in the autonomous regions of Georgia has risen sharply: Adjarians, as well as Abkhazians and Ossetians, came into conflict with the Georgian government on the issue of the rights of the autonomies and brought accusations against Tbilisi of ignoring their social and economic interests. Both Abkhazians and Ossetians announced the separation of their autonomies from Georgia. In response, the Georgian government and its subordinate paramilitary forces used force. In December 1990, the autonomous region of South Ossetia was abolished by the central authorities. The Abkhazians defeated Georgian troops in 1993-1994 and proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Abkhazia. Georgian-Abkhazian negotiations mediated by Russia and the UN have dragged on for a long time and have not yet been completed. There are other national minorities living in Georgia, including Jews, Assyrians, Kurds and Tatars, but they are small in number. Among ethnic Georgians there are clearly distinct regional groups - Mingrelians and Svans, who, in addition to Georgian, widely use their own languages. Language. The Georgian language belongs to the Kartvelian group of Iberian-Caucasian languages, which also includes Mingrelian and Svan languages. It has its own alphabet, used since ancient times and which underwent significant changes in the 11th and 17th centuries. The earliest surviving Georgian literary monuments date back to the 5th century. AD More than 98% of ethnic Georgians consider Georgian their mother tongue. It is widely used in the economic, political and cultural life of the country. The Abkhaz language is the official language on the territory of Abkhazia.
Letter. Georgian is the only language among the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​that has an ancient alphabetic script. It conveys the sound composition of Georgian speech and forms the written and printed symbols of this language. The Georgian alphabet has 33 letters (5 vowels and 28 consonants). The writing of the letters is unique: it cannot be compared with any other alphabet in the world.
Religion. Most ethnic Georgians belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church, a branch of Orthodox Christianity. Eastern Georgia in 330 AD was converted to Christianity by St. Nino is from Cappadocia and became the second state (after Armenia) to adopt Christianity as an official religion. The Georgian Orthodox Church remained independent for a long time, but in 1811 it was incorporated into the Russian Orthodox Church. The status of autocephaly was returned in 1917. Like other churches in the former USSR, Georgian church lost its former influence as a result of atheistic government policy. The number of church parishes fell from about 2,000 in 1917 to 80 by the 1960s. The influence of the church began to be restored only with the establishment of glasnost in the late 1980s. While Georgia has a small number of Catholics, there are relatively many Muslim Georgians in Adjara and along the country's southern border. Abkhazians are mostly Sunni Muslims, but there are also Orthodox Christians. Azerbaijanis, Assyrians and Kurds are Muslims. The majority of Ossetians profess Orthodoxy. Armenians, Greeks and Russians have their own Orthodox churches. Georgia is characterized by religious tolerance. Tbilisi has many places of worship, including synagogues and a mosque.
Cities. Tbilisi, founded in the 5th century. AD King Vakhtang I Gorgasali, is located in the very core of Georgian lands, at the junction of several historical regions - Inner and Lower Kartalinia (Kartli), Kakheti and Javakheti. From 1801 to 1917 this city (until 1936 Tiflis) was the main administrative and commercial center of the Caucasus region. In 1845 it became the residence of the governor of the Russian Empire, who ruled the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Almost a quarter of Georgia's population lives in modern Tbilisi. In 1989, ethnic Georgians made up 66% of the population, Armenians - 12%, Russians - 10%, Ossetians - 3%, Kurds - 2% and Greeks - 2%. The city's architecture reflects a rich mixture of Eastern and Western cultures. The old part of the city is characterized by winding streets, bazaars and low houses with flat roofs and carved balconies. Modern neighborhoods have a European appearance. There are beautiful multi-storey buildings, wide boulevards and avenues lined with shady trees. Large areas around Tbilisi are occupied by forest parks, gardens and vineyards. Other large cities include Kutaisi (235 thousand inhabitants in 1989), the oldest city in the country and the regional center of Western Georgia; Batumi (136 thousand), the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, the main port and oil terminal of Georgia; Sukhumi (121 thousand), the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and in the recent past the main resort; Rustavi (159 thousand), the main center of metallurgy. Tskhinvali (42 thousand) is the center of South Ossetia. Chiatura (69 thousand) and Tkibuli (37 thousand) are centers of manganese and coal mining.
Administrative-territorial division. In 1995, a new administrative-territorial division of Georgia was adopted into 9 regions: Samegrelo, Upper Svaneti, Lower Svaneti and Racha-Lechkhumi, Imereti, Guria, Meskheti-Javakheti, Lower Kartaliniya (Shida Kartli), Upper Kartaliniya (Kvemo Kartli), Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Kakheti; two cities as regions: Tbilisi and Poti; two autonomous republics: Adjara and Abkhazia (currently pursuing an independent policy). The South Ossetian Autonomous Region was abolished by law, but exists de facto.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
For a long period of its history, Georgia was fragmented into small kingdoms, often under the control of foreign powers. After joining the Russian Empire, the country was divided into four provinces. From 1918 to 1921 it existed as an independent republic with a Menshevik government. In 1921, power was seized by the Bolsheviks, and in 1922 Georgia became a Soviet republic within the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR). In 1936, the TSFSR was liquidated, and Georgia became one of the union republics of the USSR. In April 1991, Georgia declared independence, and after presidential elections and a constitutional referendum in October 1995 it became a democratic republic.
State structure. Until 1991, Georgia was one of the 15 union republics of the USSR. Its legislative body, the Supreme Council of the Georgian SSR, consisted of 440 deputies who were elected every five years by universal suffrage. Despite its status as the highest legislative body, the Supreme Council of Georgia, together with its presidium and other highest republican political, administrative and judicial bodies (the Central Committee of the Communist Party, the Council of Ministers and the Supreme Court of Georgia), were under the control of Moscow and ultimately the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee . All major appointments to positions in the highest authorities of Georgia were made in agreement with the Central Committee of the CPSU. After October 1990, the system of government changed radically due to the election of a non-communist government in the first alternative multi-party elections in the republic (after 1919). The radical nationalist bloc "Round Table - Free Georgia" received 155 of the 250 seats in the Supreme Council. The new government quickly replaced the communist administration with an essentially autocratic presidential system. The President, like the Supreme Council, was elected for five years without any restrictions on the term of office. The President was granted broad powers in the legislative and executive spheres of power. He could appoint his own advisory council and, with the approval of the Supreme Council, appoint or remove the prime minister and the entire cabinet. He had the authority to appoint chairmen of the commissions of the Supreme Council, which were formed by government departments, and to select the prosecutor general and the chairman Supreme Court. The President had the right to veto laws and dissolve the Supreme Council, issue decrees, stop the activities of the cabinet of ministers and create administrative regions. He had great powers in governing the autonomous republics. The first president, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, elected in May 1991, tried to exercise the powers granted to him, but was overthrown in January 1992 as a result of a military coup. The State Council, consisting of approximately 70 representatives of the majority of opposition parties, governed the country until new general elections in October 1992. Eduard Shevardnadze, who had been the USSR Foreign Minister under Gorbachev and Chairman of the State Council of Georgia since March 1992, was elected as head of state - chairman of parliament . Representatives of 26 parties received seats in the new 235-seat parliament, which soon united into 11 factions. Parliament is formally endowed with great powers, including the right to remove the head of state (with 2/3 of the votes) and the exclusive right to call new elections. However, due to the ongoing military and economic crises facing the country, the head of state has concentrated large additional powers in his hands. At the end of 1992, a cabinet of ministers was formed, entirely consisting of Shevardnadze’s supporters. The main achievement of the newly formed parliament was the adoption of the Constitution of Georgia on August 24, 1995. Soon after this, Georgia acceded to all conventions of international law.
Local control. Before the elections in October 1990, local government was carried out jointly by elected local councils and centrally approved Communist Party committees. Councils organized in cities, regions (republics), districts and rural areas were elected for a period of three years. They appointed executive committees to govern their territories. The Soviets, in fact, did not exercise local democratic control over executive branch and after the 1990 elections were replaced by a prefectural system. Prefects, appointed by the president and reporting only to him and the Supreme Council, acquired significant power over the new local people's assemblies - sakrebuloebi. After the overthrow of President Gamsakhurdia, the Sakrebuloebi regained their previous powers.
Judicial system. Until 1990, the Georgian judicial system was subordinate to the republican and central Soviet governments and the CPSU. The republic's criminal and civil codes, courts, legal proceedings and the constitution repeated the all-Union standard. The highest judicial body of the republic was the Supreme Court, which was subordinate to the Supreme Court of the USSR and was elected by the Supreme Council of Georgia every five years. The lower courts replicated the Soviet administrative hierarchy. At the rural and small town levels, judges were elected by popular vote; at the regional (republic) and big city level - by the relevant council. Judges served for five years, and two lay judges, who sat next to the judge, were elected for a term of 2.5 years. The autonomous republics had their own judicial systems, each of which was headed by a supreme court, subordinate to the Supreme Council of Georgia. Judicial proceedings were biased toward prosecution and were heavily influenced by prosecutors appointed by the republican prosecutor, who in turn was appointed by the prosecutor general in Moscow. Despite constitutional and legal provisions for independent judiciary, all judges were under the control of the CPSU. Following the defeat of the Communist Party in the October 1990 elections, the criminal and civil codes, judicial structures and procedures, and the constitution were revised to create a truly independent judiciary. The Supreme Court remained the highest legal body, and the term of office of its members was extended to 10 years. The rights of both lawyers and accused were expanded; the accusatory bias in legal proceedings was canceled. The prosecutor's office and the new constitutional review committee began to strictly enforce the law. Judges were prohibited from belonging to any political organization or from holding any other public office. The judiciary in Georgia is still highly centralized. It consists of the following branches: the Supreme Court of Georgia, the Constitutional Court, the supreme courts of the autonomous republics, the court of appeal; district, regional and city (district city) courts. The Chairman of the Constitutional Court is appointed by Parliament on the proposal of the President. Other courts are part of the judicial system of general jurisdiction, which is formed by the President of Georgia. Members of the Council of Justice (an advisory body created under the President of Georgia) are appointed by the President and Parliament. The lower level of courts of general jurisdiction is represented by regional and city (district city in large cities) courts. The Council of Justice appoints judges. The chairman of the court is appointed by the President of Georgia for a 5-year term. A judge in an autonomous republic is appointed by the highest legislative body of the autonomous republic with the written consent of the president. District courts are formed by the President of Georgia on the proposal of the Council of Justice. Collegiums are created in district courts (for criminal law, civil law, etc.). The chairman of the district court and his deputy are appointed by the President of Georgia for a five-year term. In autonomous republics, court chairmen are appointed by parliament with the written consent of the president. There are courts of appeal at the supreme courts of the republics of Adjara and Abkhazia, in Tbilisi and Kutaisi. The activities of courts of general jurisdiction are supervised by the Supreme Court of Georgia. The President of Georgia approves the staffing table and structure of the Supreme Court based on proposals from the Council of Justice. The Parliament of Georgia, by a majority vote, approves the Chairman of the Supreme Court of Georgia upon the proposal of the President. Protection of human rights in independent Georgia. The foundations of the system for the protection of human rights in Georgia were laid on April 20, 1992, when, on the initiative of the head of state, the Committee for the Protection of Human Rights under the government of the country was created, which became the main government source of information on this issue. The Committee analyzes and monitors state legislation, court decisions and administrative acts in the field of human rights. On October 4, 1994, Decree No. 335 of the head of state “On certain measures to protect human rights in Georgia” was issued. In accordance with it, all government authorities were invited to cooperate with the Committee for the Protection of Human Rights to develop proposals and measures that would facilitate the practical implementation of the requirements of the UN, international agreements and additional protocols.
Political parties. Until October 1990, the CPSU was the only legal political party in Georgia. In 1981 it consisted of approx. 350 thousand people, i.e. less than 7% of the population. The party ruled all political and social life. The Communist Party's monopoly on power ended after multi-party elections in October 1990. The Round Table - Free Georgia bloc, a coalition of seven parties led by Gamsakhurdia, and the Georgian Helsinki Union formed a new government and became the dominant political force in the Supreme Council. This bloc received 54% of the vote in the general elections and 155 of the 250 seats in parliament. The Communist Party of Georgia received 30% of the vote and 64 seats. The All-Georgian Union of National Accord and Revival received 3.4% of the votes and did not receive a single seat in parliament. In September 1990, an unofficial competing parliament was elected, which was called the National Congress (over half of the voters participated in the elections). It was dominated by the National Independence Party, led by Irakli Tsereteli, and the National Democratic Party, led by Giorgi Chanturia. Until January 1992, he played the role of extra-parliamentary opposition to the Supreme Council and President Gamsakhourdia. Political life was dominated by anti-Gamsakhurdi hunger strikes, demonstrations and rallies until December 1991, when the opposition resorted to the armed overthrow of the president. The government's harsh policies, including the introduction of censorship and non-recognition of ethnic parties, along with Georgia's economic failure and international isolation, have disappointed Georgian society. After the unsuccessful coup in Moscow in August 1991, a major new parliamentary opposition in Tbilisi, consisting of intellectuals known as Charter 91, and government officials, including ministers and military leaders, united and called for Gamsakhurdia's resignation. After violent clashes in Tbilisi in December 1991 - January 1992, Gamsakhurdia fled the country (eventually settling in Checheno-Ingushetia). In the fall of 1993, he attempted to return to power, starting a short but intense civil war. In January 1994, Gamsakhurdia was killed under mysterious circumstances. Supporters of exiled President Zviad Gamsakhurdia still form one of the opposition political movements. The cabinet appointed by Shevardnadze at the end of 1992 reflected the balance of political forces in the new parliament. The parliamentary factions soon united into a majority group, i.e. supporters of Shevardnadze, and an opposition group of opponents of Shevardnadze. The majority united in a broad coalition, the Civil Union, led by Zurab Zhvania of the Green Party. The opposition was led by the Popular Front, the National Democratic Party, Charter-91 and the Ilya Chavchavadze Society. The All-Georgian Revival Union represented the political forces of Adjara in Tbilisi. The Abkhaz faction tried to pass resolutions on Abkhazia. New political parties were formed: the Christian Democratic Union led by Irakli Shengelaya, the Democratic Georgian Union (Avtandil Margiani), the National Independence Party (Irakli Tsereteli), the Party of Georgian Monarchists (Timur Zhorzholiani) and the United Communist Party of Georgia (Panteleimon Georgadze). Parliamentary elections in November 1995 were held on the basis of a mixed system of party lists and single-mandate constituencies. There are 10 parties represented in parliament that have overcome the barrier of 5% of the vote, but only three of them have political weight: the pro-Shevarnadze Union of Citizens of Georgia, the opposition National Democratic Party and the All-Georgian Revival Union (defends the interests of Adjara). Political parties in Georgia still remain loose entities and have little connection with their electorate.
Armed forces. Georgians have long lived surrounded by aggressive states and have accumulated extensive military experience. After the annexation of Georgia by Russia in the 19th century. Georgian troops were included in the Russian army and then the Soviet armed forces. In 1991, the country hosted approx. 200 thousand Soviet military personnel. By 1994, as a result of the withdrawal of troops and the conclusion of a bilateral agreement with Russia, the number of Russian troops in Georgia was reduced to 20 thousand people, who were stationed at three military bases. In November 1990, the Georgian National Guard was formed; it was subsequently included in the regular army, created in the spring of 1992. The paramilitary organization "Mkhedrioni" actually had an autonomous status within the army, although it was transformed into the official state structure of the Georgian Rescue Corps. In the summer of 1994, the new Minister of Defense reorganized the 20,000-strong army. There was no strict discipline in the regular army, desertion flourished, and outdated weapons prevailed. The 1995 Constitution, as well as the laws “On conscription and military service”, “On defense”, “On martial law” formed the legislative basis for the Georgian armed forces. In the same year, parliament approved the country's military doctrine. The Georgian Armed Forces are responsible for its defense. They consist of troops subordinate to the Ministry of Defense, border troops, internal troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the state security brigade. The Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces is the President of Georgia. In 1995, the Georgian armed forces consisted of the following units: ground forces, navy, air force, air defense units, national guard and republican security forces (internal and border troops). The conscription age is 18 years. At one time, according to estimates for 1997, 1289 thousand people aged 15 to 49 years can be mobilized (annually 40.8 thousand men reach conscription age). The Parliament of Georgia approves the size of the armed forces and defense spending. Military cooperation with Western countries, especially the USA and Germany, is gradually expanding. In 1996-1997, the Georgian armed forces conducted large-scale military exercises for the first time. In 1996, a unit of the Georgian army took part in exercises conducted in the United States as part of the Partnership for Peace program. The Georgian border troops received significant assistance from the United States. In 1998, the defense ministers of Greece and Georgia signed an agreement on military-technical cooperation and adopted a joint program of military cooperation. During the Abkhaz-Georgian conflict, both sides left minefields on the territory of Abkhazia. Most of the mines were laid in the Gali region of Abkhazia, where Georgians predominate in the population. In August 1994, a commission of the UN Humanitarian Aid Department estimated that between 75 thousand and 150 thousand mines were laid in Georgia between the Gumista and Inguri rivers. Main and secondary roads were mined, and adults and children were blown up by mines. Currently, only CIS troops are engaged in mine clearance. The Georgian government is interested in assistance from the UN in demining the territory, but for this it is necessary to obtain the consent of the Abkhaz side.
Foreign policy. After declaring independence, Georgia signed friendship treaties with Russia, Turkey, Iran, Armenia and Azerbaijan and established diplomatic relations with most Western countries. It is a member of the UN since 1992, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the International Monetary Fund and has the status of a guest state in the Council of Europe. Georgia initially refused to join the CIS, and its relations with the Russian Federation remained strained due to Russia's unofficial support for Abkhaz separatists. However, after the defeat in Abkhazia and due to the civil war in the west of the country in the fall of 1993, Georgia was forced to request the deployment of a Russian military contingent to the country. After that, she joined the CIS.
ECONOMY
As part of the USSR, Georgia's economy developed rapidly. Between 1913 and 1975, the country's national income increased almost 90 times. At the same time, national income per capita in the 1970s was only 3/4 of the average all-Union level. The country's economy changed from agricultural to industrial and post-industrial. In 1990, the service sector accounted for over 40% of employment, and the industry accounted for 27%. Until 1992, almost all means of production belonged to the state, and the economy was controlled by planning authorities from Moscow and Tbilisi. The volume of output of each enterprise was planned based on the target figures of the annual and five-year plans, developed by officials along the entire vertical of industry management (from the enterprise to the Union Ministry in Moscow). Despite impressive growth rates, industrial and agricultural production in Georgia was inefficient and supported by cheap government loans. Georgia's heavy industries include hydroelectric power production, coal and manganese mining, cement production, metallurgy (production of ferroalloys, cast iron and steel), mechanical engineering (production of trucks, electric locomotives and sea vessels), oil refining and paper production. Light industry was dominated by the food (tea, wine, mineral waters, etc.) and textile industries (silk, cotton and woolen fabrics). The volume of foreign trade was insignificant, although two-thirds of the food produced in Georgia was exported to other republics of the USSR. Until 1990, the presence of unemployment and inflation was not officially recognized, but they always existed in a hidden form. The government of independent Georgia faced a catastrophic economic decline. In 1992, production overall fell by 40%. The volume of output in industry decreased by 48%, and in agriculture - by 32%. The government's planned expenditures for 1993 were almost four times higher than expected revenues. In the first two months of 1993, inflation was 50% per month, and the official unemployment rate reached 7%. In April 1993, Georgia introduced a temporary currency - the coupon - to stop using Russian rubles. The privatization process was very slow, despite active legislative activity in this area. By mid-1994, the main indicators of the state of the economy indicated a crisis in all sectors of production. Many sectors of the economy, such as forestry and construction, have practically ceased their activities, and others have reduced their output to the level of the 1960s. Production and transport infrastructures were destroyed, and the new monetary unit depreciated. Inflation was approx. 9000% per year, and unemployment reached 20%. While officially operating enterprises and organizations were in a state of complete collapse, unofficial shadow production and the black market adapted well to the new conditions. In 1995, the government began to bring the economy out of crisis, bringing down inflation, directing almost all IMF loans to stabilize finances and bringing the structure of the economy in line with the terms of the loans. Market prices for grain products were introduced, preparations were made for joining the World Trade Organization, agreements were signed to transport Caspian oil via a pipeline through Georgia to the Black Sea, and laws were adopted on commercial banks, land and tax reforms. Agriculture began to revive, but industry still needed radical restructuring and major investments. The introduction of a new currency, the lari, and a relatively balanced state budget had a beneficial effect on the state of the country's economy. In 1996, the country's GDP grew even more than the government planned - by 14% (in 1995 - by only 2.4%). Over 30 thousand private enterprises were registered. The total number of people employed in 1996 was estimated at 2.2 million people, of which 31% were in industry and construction, 25% in agriculture and forestry, and 44% in other industries. Government efforts were aimed at gradually removing price controls. In February 1996, the government increased bread prices by 40%, which was one of the steps towards completely eliminating subsidies on this product throughout the year. Such measures became inevitable due to the gradual decrease in grain supplies from humanitarian aid funds. In 1996, Georgia received only 138 thousand tons of wheat as aid (in 1995 - 540 thousand tons), which was due to the need to purchase grain at world prices. In general, this had almost no effect on the prices of other products, which indicates greater independence of the market from government intervention than expected. In 1997, economic growth was stimulated by the development of small and medium-sized private enterprises, which were active in the services, transport, construction and food industries. Credit to large state-owned enterprises and price support for bread, utilities and passenger transport were sharply reduced, as was the number of employees in state-owned enterprises. The budget deficit in 1996 dropped to 3-4%. The new lari currency, introduced in 1995, gradually increased in value. Officially registered unemployment remained low in 1997, although most of the employed no longer worked in the public sector. The private sector contributed over 50% of GDP. After some progress, the pace of privatization increased. Most small businesses and housing, as well as a few large enterprises, were privatized. Georgia has a voucher program, but privatization did not extend to strategic enterprises and state-owned monopolies, such as the grain trade and state-owned energy systems. There are no restrictions on the participation of foreigners in the privatization of enterprises. For the restoration of agriculture, the reform ensuring the right to sell land property was of great importance. The economy remains fragile due to complex structural problems, including difficulties in collecting taxes and charging for energy consumption. Most firms evade taxes because they are involved in underground business. In Georgia in 1995, the share of taxes was only 5.8% of GDP. Income tax was collected only from those employed in the public sector, and in other sectors only from those few who declared income. Nevertheless, in 1997 there were positive changes in tax collection. President Shevardnadze reported that tax revenues have increased strongly, and ongoing tax reform, encouraged by the IMF, will lead to further growth. At the same time, the size of Georgia's external debt exceeded $1.5 billion by mid-1996. At the second stage of economic reforms, the transition to a market economy will be completed, but the main obstacle to economic growth remains the protracted energy crisis.
Economical geography. Almost all industrial production is concentrated in the lowland regions of the country; over half of the enterprises are located in the cities of Tbilisi, Rustavi (southeast of Tbilisi) and Kutaisi (in Western Georgia). The east-central region (Tbilisi - Rustavi) has the highest level of economic development, followed by the west-central region (Kutaisi - Zestafoni), Abkhazia, South Ossetia and the southern regions. Despite trends towards a more even distribution of the economy through the expansion of coal mining and electricity production in Abkhazia, talc mining and logging in South Ossetia, and the development of agro-industrial complexes throughout the republic, territorial differences persist and continue to exacerbate ethno-regional contradictions. The growth rate of industry in general in Abkhazia and South Ossetia is much lower than in Georgia. The share of Abkhaz people employed in agriculture was higher than that of any other ethnic group in the former USSR. More than 70% of all people employed in industry are concentrated in Central Georgia.
Energy. Georgia's hydropower potential is estimated at 88.5 billion kWh per year and exceeds the total hydropower potential of Great Britain, Switzerland and Germany. Even using just under 10% of this potential, hydropower generates almost half of the country's electricity. There are 72 power plants in Georgia, of which 64 are hydroelectric power plants. However, only 3/4 of the electricity demand is met. Reserves of other energy resources - coal, oil and natural gas - are insignificant. Coal production is declining. Coal mines located near the towns of Tkvarcheli and Tkibuli in western Georgia provide only half the coke needed by the Rustavi Metallurgical Plant and contribute only modestly to electricity production. In 1997, 14 thousand tons of coal were produced in Georgia compared to 500 thousand tons in 1992. The oil production industry, based on deposits in Kakheti, is poorly developed: in 1997 only 120 thousand tons of oil were produced. Local oil supplies only 4% of the country's needs; the rest is imported from Russia and Azerbaijan. However, the Batumi refinery and storage facilities, supplied by pipelines from the Baku oil fields, make Georgia a vital component of the future development of the Caucasus region's oil economy. Natural gas, which supplies 44% of the country's fuel needs, comes from other countries, primarily Turkmenistan. In 1990, the most energy-intensive consumers were non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and oil industries. In 1990, the three largest plants - Rustavi Metallurgical Plant, Zestafoni Ferroalloy Plant and Rustavi Azot Chemical Complex - consumed more electricity than the entire population of Georgia. The collapse of the USSR led to an energy crisis in Georgia. Gasoline and electricity production fell catastrophically. Agreements on oil and gas supplies were concluded with Iran and Turkey. The country's long-term energy needs can only be met through further development of hydropower. In 1994, hydroelectric power plants operated at only 21% of installed capacity, and the only operating thermal power plant, Gardabani in Eastern Georgia, operated at only 14%. The green movement in Georgia opposes pollution of the Black Sea. In April 1992, the heads of government of Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Turkey signed the Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution. The convention has been ratified by all six countries. In April 1993, an intergovernmental declaration on the protection of the Black Sea was adopted in Odessa. It notes the need to create a system of joint management of the coastal zone and states that the Black Sea countries must develop and implement national policies within the framework of this system. The activities of this system in Georgia are supported by international organizations, in particular the Black Sea Environmental Protection Program, funded by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program and UNEP. Energy consumption in Georgia decreased by half in 1990-1994. After 1993, almost no gas was supplied to consumers. In limited quantities, it came from Russia to the Gardabani State District Power Plant and the Rustavi Metallurgical Plant in exchange for some goods under a barter scheme. Imports of other types of fuel (oil, fuel oil, gasoline) fell sharply. At the end of 1994, Georgia had a debt to Turkmenistan, mainly for gas (more than $400 million). Firewood has again become one of the main types of fuel for heating homes and cooking in rural areas, and kerosene is the main type of fuel in cities. In 1994, the demand for electricity was satisfied by hydroelectric power (70.5%), energy from thermal power plants (17.6%) and imports from Russian Federation(11.9%). In the fall of 1995, the State Fuel and Energy Corporation was created, which included special departments Sakenergo (electricity production and distribution), Sakgazi (natural gas supply), Saknaftobi (oil and natural gas production and processing) and the holding company Saknaftobproducts (supply and fuel distribution). This corporation is responsible for developing the country's economic and energy policies and their implementation. Reorganization of the management of the fuel and energy complex has led to improved energy supply since 1996. Energy reform is a decisive link in Georgia's transition to a market economy. Currently, the Georgian government is restructuring the electricity sector. The adoption of the Electricity Law in June 1997 made it possible to create a national regulatory body in this area.
Extractive industry. Despite the richness of the subsoil with a variety of minerals, the mining industry in Georgia is poorly developed. The exception is manganese mining. Manganese mines in Chiatura in the 1970s provided 1/4 of all manganese production in the USSR. In the mid-1990s, manganese reserves in Georgia were estimated at 200 million tons. Coal deposits in Abkhazia (reserves more than 300 million tons) and oil deposits in Eastern Georgia (reserves less than 100 million tons) cannot meet the needs of the energy and metallurgical industries . Georgia has small deposits of copper, lead, lime and barite, which allow supporting the non-ferrous metallurgy and chemical industry, incl. production of nitrogen fertilizers and medicines. Other important types of mineral raw materials include talc, diatomite, marls, dolomites, limestones, marble, refractory clays, etc. Georgia is rich in mineral springs. Borjomi mineral water and manganese were the hallmarks of Georgia's mining industry. Georgia's mining industry has prospects for further development, but the scale of production will depend on domestic and foreign markets.
Manufacturing industry. Until the end of the 19th century. Georgia remained an underdeveloped agrarian outskirts of the Russian Empire. During the Soviet period, rapid industrialization took place. During the period from 1913 to 1975, the volume of gross industrial output in Georgia increased 154 times. In 1990, the republic produced 0.2% of all world industrial output, approximately the same as Norway. Industry provided over 40% of the country's national income. However, the centralized organization of industrial production according to five-year plans and production volume targets led to a serious economic imbalance with an extremely high concentration of investment in heavy industry and the production of low-quality goods. The dominant branch of the manufacturing industry is food. Using its own agricultural base, this industry produces 3/5 of all industrial products, employing almost 2/5 of those employed in industry. The leading sectors of the food industry are fruit canning, tea production, winemaking and tobacco production. These four industries account for 3/5 of the total value of products produced by the food industry. Less developed industries are the production of pasta, beer, sugar, meat and dairy products. The production of fabrics (silk, wool and cotton), clothing and footwear is developed. Heavy industry includes the production of steel, railroad locomotives, trucks, ships, and agricultural machinery. The metallurgy industry, represented almost exclusively by the Rustavi Metallurgical Plant, produces pipes and rolled products for the oil and automobile industries, as well as for factories producing railway locomotives, ships and agricultural machinery. Metallurgical production is largely dependent on supplies of coke and iron ore from Russia. Due to the energy problem, dwindling resources and the flight of skilled workers to Russia in the early 1990s, the industry experienced a catastrophic decline. In 1993, the volume of industrial output was 74.3% of the 1992 level. During the same time, the volume of production in metallurgy decreased to 81%, and in mechanical engineering and metalworking - to 43%. The total volume of industrial output produced by state-owned enterprises in 1994 was 1/5 of the 1990 level, but in 1995 the decline stopped. Currently, less than 20% of industrial enterprises operate in Georgia, operating at only 15% of their capacity. In 1996, the increase in industrial output was 7.7%. By 1996, such industries as the production of steel, aircraft, machinery, machine tools, foundry equipment, electric locomotives, tower cranes, electric welding equipment, equipment for the food and meat-packing industries, electric motors, instrumentation, trucks, tractors, textiles, footwear, chemical products, woolen products and wine.
Agriculture. Cultivated lands occupy less than 20% of Georgia's territory. Previously, peasants could not use the marshy soils along the sea coast, but during the years of Soviet power, most of the waterlogged lands were drained. It was no less difficult to cultivate the lands in the arid regions in the east, but they were also involved in agricultural circulation thanks to the widespread development of irrigation. Despite the noted problems, Georgian agriculture achieved great success and remained the main source of prosperity for the republic. Between 1913 and 1980, agricultural output increased more than 10-fold. Georgian peasants have long used the country's fertile soils and warm climate to grow crops such as citrus fruits, tobacco and tea, which are the basis of the food industry. When the Soviet market was closed to competition from foreign goods, Georgia had a monopoly on the production of tea and citrus fruits. The need for a large number of workers to grow and harvest specialized crops such as tea, tobacco and grapes determined the consistently high level of employment. According to official statistics, in 1985, 28% of the country's working population was employed in agriculture and related activities. Before the privatization of land in 1992, Georgian agriculture was organized in the form of collective and state farms. The average collective farm had land with an area of ​​428 hectares and united more than 400 peasant households. Although there was no private ownership of land, peasants and some urban residents received plots of land for rent to grow produce for personal consumption or for sale. Despite small area these plots, the yields there were twice as high as on collective and state farms. There were also restrictions on the permissible number of domestic animals in private households. Private traders supplied almost half of the republic's agricultural products, including 64% of meat, 54% of milk and 43% of eggs; they owned over half of the domestic animals (mainly cattle, sheep and pigs). Until 1992, more than 80% of cultivated land was occupied by grain and fodder crops. From total area 40% of cereals were corn and almost 40% were winter wheat. Other crops include legumes, tobacco, potatoes and vegetables. Grapes, citrus and other fruits, as well as tea occupy 34% of fertile land. The most important agricultural product after cereals is wine grapes. Georgian vineyards accounted for 1/8 of all vineyards in the USSR, and more than 10% of total agricultural production came from grape products. Georgia produces 500 different types of wine, although only a few brands are exported abroad. Winemaking is concentrated mainly in the east of the country, in Kakheti. Citrus fruits yielded approx. 8% of the value of all agricultural products in Georgia. Subtropical fruits accounted for another 8%, while tea, whose plantations occupied only 2% of the cultivated area, provided almost 20% of the total production. The specialization of livestock farming in Georgia is determined by the breeding of cattle, pigs and sheep. Poultry farming is widespread. Further growth of livestock farming is not very effective due to the high density of animals on the land, the low level of mechanization and the practice of transhumance sheep farming. Sheep and pigs are raised mainly in the mountains and foothills. By mid-1994, about half of all cultivated land was in private hands. In an attempt to ease the long-running food crisis, the government distributed small plots of land free of charge to residents of large cities. Privatization finally destroyed efficiently operating agricultural enterprises and left private landowners without the necessary agricultural equipment and implements. Collapsed supply chains, high fuel prices and deteriorating roads and railways have contributed to declining living standards in many rural areas. The revival of agricultural production began only in 1995. Since 1995, humanitarian food aid has been curtailed and local agricultural production has been expanded through cooperation with international organizations. The European Union took the first major step in this direction by providing Georgia with a line of credit to support developing commercial grain trading structures and private peasant farms growing grain crops through short-term loans. The implementation of the Georgian Agricultural Project of the World Bank, the International Development Association (IDA) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is also the result of the development of a new strategy for cooperation with international organizations. This project, with a loan of $21.5 million ($15 million from IDA and $6.5 million from IFAD), authorized the opening of a credit line for privatized agricultural enterprises and the food industry, the development of rural credit unions, and the implementation of a pilot programs for land registration and agricultural research. Cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been strengthened. The Winter Wheat Distribution project has already been implemented and is estimated at $346 thousand. 300 tons of high-quality wheat seeds were distributed among farmers' associations created in Georgia as part of this project. In 1997, the Georgian government received a grant of 500 million yen ($5 million) as part of the Japanese program "Increasing food production in developing countries." In this regard, Georgia will receive agricultural equipment and phosphate fertilizers necessary for the development of grain farming. The Japan Chamber of Commerce won the tender for the supply of these types of products. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is financing a project called the Wholesale Market. Its goal is to increase the role of small enterprises in new system distribution and sale of fruits and vegetables based on the principles of a market economy. As part of this project, it is planned to open a central wholesale market in Tbilisi and three regional markets in Akhaltsikhe, Gurjaani and Marneuli. As Georgia's agri-food sector demonstrates commercial viability, the EBRD is financing exciting investment projects worth over $5 million, guaranteed by the Georgian government. Cooperation with the United States has expanded significantly. In 1997, an agreement was signed between the US Department of Agriculture Commodity Credit Corporation and the Georgian Ministry of Agriculture and Food. The United States provided an export credit of $20 million to supply 95 thousand tons of food wheat to Georgia. Regulating the use of toxic chemicals in agriculture. During the Soviet period, there was a centralized system for the distribution and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, which operated in accordance with all-Union guidelines, instructions and state standards. For example, one of the organizations within the Georgian Ministry of Agriculture was responsible for the centralized distribution of pesticides and chemical fertilizers to agricultural producers. In addition, there were 22 district stations that organized the storage, distribution and transportation of pesticides, as well as provided advisory control over their use and regulated their use. Surveys in 1995-1996 showed that pesticides are used by many state-owned agricultural enterprises, as well as in the private sector. There is widespread illegal trade in products containing pesticide residues. Since the 1,200 collective farms were replaced by a large number of small private farms, the number of users increased significantly and the previous system of control over the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers turned out to be ineffective. Although in 1994 parliament adopted a number of laws and regulations to regulate the use of toxic substances in agriculture, they are not provided with an organizational basis and a mechanism for influencing their violators. Tourism in Georgia has great growth potential. Back in the early 1980s, many seaside, ski and mineral water resorts, the warm climate and picturesque mountain landscapes of this republic annually attracted over 170 thousand foreign tourists. At the end of the 1980s, 1.5% of the working population was employed in tourism, and by the mid-1990s it was less than 1%. The decline in the tourism business is associated with armed conflicts, crime and general instability in the country. In 1994, when the political and economic situation began to stabilize, a revival of tourist activity began. Georgians, whose hospitality is well known, are trying to attract tourists and provide them with decent living conditions. Although large state hotels have been temporarily used as housing for refugees from Abkhazia, new private hotels have appeared in the country. The Georgian government is making plans to increase the influx of tourists to previously created national parks (Borjomi - Kharagauli, Tbilisi) and others most beautiful places countries.
Transport. Due to its geographical position between European Russia and Asia, the territory of Georgia has important transit significance. In particular, it provides neighboring countries - Azerbaijan and Armenia have the shortest access to the Black Sea. During the Soviet period, Tbilisi became a major junction of railways and roads in the Caucasus region. Railways are the main means of domestic freight transport. In 1913 their length was 795 km, in 1955 - 1300 km, and in 1993 - 1580 km (all of them were electrified). The backbone of the railway network is formed by the sublatitudinal Transcaucasian Railway, built back in 1883 and connecting Baku with Poti and Batumi. From it there are main branches to Tkibuli, Borjomi, Chiatura, the Kakheti road and the line to Yerevan. Communication with Russia was maintained in the east - through Baku and in the west - along the Black Sea coast. There is a railway connection with Turkey through the territory of Armenia. For the development of the peripheral regions of the republic, the railway lines Natanebi - Makharadze, Ochamchire - Tkvarcheli, Brotseula - Tskaltubo, Gori - Tskhinvali, Borjomi - Akhaltsikhe - Vale, Grakali - Tedzami, Kachreti - Tsiteli-Tskaro, etc. were built. Thanks to Georgia’s position on the southern border In the former Russian Empire and the USSR, highways were considered important strategic objects. Since 1914, their length has increased 10 times. In 1989, Georgia had 37.6 thousand km of paved roads, of which only 1/10 were asphalted. Among the most picturesque is the famous Georgian Military Road through the Cross Pass (one of four highways crossing the high-mountainous zone of the Greater Caucasus). The best-developed road connecting Georgia with Turkey passes through Sarpi, south of Batumi. The country has well-developed public transport (Tbilisi has a metro). Since owning a car in Georgia is of great importance for a person’s social status, the number of private cars is growing rapidly. Poor road conditions and indiscipline of drivers lead to numerous car accidents. Georgia has a number of ports on the Black Sea. Notable among them are Batumi, the main oil terminal and container port, and Poti, an important naval base. Before the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, Sukhumi played the role of the main tourist and resort port. The majority of cargo transported through Georgian ports is crude oil. Despite the international status of the port of Batumi, a significant part of trade is limited to the Black Sea region. Georgia has well-developed air communications between regional centers, and Tbilisi is connected by international airlines to most capitals of the CIS and Europe. Georgian transport, like other service sectors, is experiencing a crisis after the collapse of the USSR. Due to an acute fuel shortage in 1991-1993, air communications with almost all regional centers of the former USSR were interrupted, which greatly complicated the development of foreign and domestic trade. In 1994 some air flights were restored by private airlines. In general, the volume of freight traffic on all types of transport in 1993 decreased by 31% compared to 1992. However, thanks to the interest of Western European and other investors in the ports of Poti and Batumi, the volume of cargo handled in 1993 increased by 33% and 46%, respectively, compared to 1992. The operation of Georgian railway transport is hampered by such problems as destruction of rolling stock, damage to tracks, lack of automatic blocking systems and single-track sections of the track. Only two main highways connecting Tbilisi with the western part of the country are suitable for heavy traffic flows, but even they are not able to handle large cargo flows if a freight transit system is established. The remaining roads are in very poor condition. In the ports of Poti and Batumi, it is necessary to install new terminals and other modern port facilities, incl. modernization of access railway lines for cargo supply, spare parts for cranes and cargo handling equipment, uninterrupted power supply and increased employee motivation. Airports also need reconstruction, and existing Georgian airlines are experiencing an acute shortage of working capital, modern aircraft, spare parts and equipment. The main direction of transport development (be it railways, highways or pipelines) is to develop transportation from the east to the west of the country. It is encouraged not only by historical traditions (in the Middle Ages, one of the branches of the Great Silk Road passed through Georgia), but also by the real possibility that Georgia could become a bridge between the Caspian and Black Sea regions. For railways, the main priorities are to rehabilitate existing lines and their servicing facilities that can effectively cope with traffic loads. There is a project to extend the southern (Meskheti) branch of the railway, firstly, through Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki and further south to Turkey and, secondly, to the west to Ozurgeti and the ports of Poti and Batumi. The reconstruction and commercial use of existing military airfields (for example Senaki) and naval ports open up new opportunities for the development of air and sea transport. The World Bank has specifically allocated $12 million as a loan for the restructuring of Georgia's railway and road transport.
Foreign and domestic trade. Until the early 1990s, domestic trade was divided into state (64%), cooperative (29%) and private (7%, on collective farm markets). During the Soviet period, prices were controlled by the state and almost all retail outlets and centers were the property of the state. State monopoly and a highly inefficient central distribution system forced much of the domestic trade into the black market. The government of independent Georgia began to implement a policy of demonopolization and privatization of trade. Before the collapse of the USSR, 67% of products produced in Georgia were exported outside the republic, and 65% of all consumed goods were imported from outside, mainly from other Soviet republics. About half of Georgia's trade with the rest of the USSR was in food and light industry products. More than 95% of black tea produced in Georgia, 62% of wines, 60% of champagne, 66% mineral waters and 70% of canned products in the 1980s were exported to other Soviet republics. Important exports were manganese, textiles and trucks. At the same time, Georgia imported steel and cast iron in the amount of 75% of its needs, 63% of the necessary engineering products and 70% of chemical products. Georgia had a small volume of foreign trade, mainly due to food exported to the socialist countries of Europe. After 1991, Georgia joined a number of international trade organizations and offered investment projects to foreign firms aimed at expanding foreign trade activities. However, the investment climate in the country remained unfavorable, and by the end of 1992 only 37 of the 271 registered joint ventures were operating. The lack of hard currency forced most trade to be carried out through barter. In the early 1990s, as a result of “spontaneous privatization,” a significant part of domestic retail trade fell into private hands. In 1993, the share of employees employed in the private sector increased to 30%, and private sector became the main source of income for a quarter of Georgian families. But Georgia's foreign trade deficit in 1993 amounted to 30% of the country's net material production product. About 80% of imports were fuels, and 56% of exports were ferrous metals. Turkey became a new major trading partner, and its share of Georgian exports increased to 12% in 1993. Foreign trade is an excellent example of the changing structure of the Georgian economy. The volume of foreign trade decreased from $911.1 million in 1992 to $533.4 million in 1995. The total volume of trade with the countries of the former USSR decreased by an average of 1.9 times, while imports decreased by 2.4 times due to the cessation of natural gas supplies from Turkmenistan. The share of the countries of the former USSR in foreign trade decreased from 52.8% in 1992 to 46.9% in 1995 and 33.4% in the first quarter of 1996. In 1995, against the background of a general decline in the volume of foreign trade (exports by 60%, and imports by 50%) there was a reduction in the foreign trade deficit to 224.6 million dollars (in 1994 it was 363.2 million dollars). Russia now ranks second in terms of foreign trade volume (18.1% in 1995). Russia's share in Georgian exports decreased from 67% in 1991 to 30.5% in 1995. A negative trade balance developed with Russia ($2.25 million), Turkmenistan ($34.3 million) and Azerbaijan (30. 5 million dollars), which is due to energy imports from the last two countries. Turkey in 1995 accounted for 21.6% of foreign trade volume and the largest export in the amount of $80.2 million. Turkey is the second largest (after Russia) importer of Georgian goods. This is due to well-established transport links with Turkey and favorable prospects for the economic development of this country. There are no trade restrictions between both countries and the border is effectively open. Many everyday food products (sunflower oil, margarine, pasta, cookies, cheap candies), as well as a large amount of clothing, shoes and a wide range of electrical appliances are imported from Turkey. Huge sectors of the local consumer market are actually in Turkish hands. Bulgaria also supplies food and industrial goods and ranks third among Georgian importers. Second place in imports belongs to Romania ($28.2 million in 1995), supplying liquid fuel. The structure of imports is dominated by liquid fuel (28.2% of total imports), natural gas (19.2%), although its share in imports has sharply decreased, and food (18.3%). The structure of Georgian exports does not reflect the structure of the economy and is based on re-export or sale of scrap metal and raw materials from Russia. Thus, ferrous metals make up 33.4% of exports, despite the fact that factories operating in the country produce only 20-30% of the previous production volume. Exports of various chemicals ($13.1 million) exceed the exports of food ($12.9 million), which was the leading export item in the late 1980s. The share of drinks is 14.3% of total exports. All these data do not reflect unregistered imports and exports, which, as is known, constitute a significant share of total foreign trade. It is estimated that at least 70% of medicines are imported through private, unregistered channels (mainly from Russia, Bulgaria and Poland). The same applies to shuttle trade with various free economic zones (for example, the United United Arab Emirates etc.), supplying Georgia with high-quality electrical household appliances, clothing and other consumer goods. Since January 1997, imports from the CIS countries are not subject to customs duties (with the exception of petroleum products, which are subject to 20% value added tax and 12% customs duty), and exports to the CIS countries are subject to value added tax. Excise taxes apply to goods imported from CIS countries.
The state budget. The draft state budget for 1995 was the first orderly budget of Georgia in the post-Soviet period. Symbolizing an important step towards the return of public administration, it was held to international standards in accordance with the requirements of the IMF and the World Bank. The Law on the State Budget of Georgia of 1996 was a step forward compared to 1995. The new budget embodied the ideology of the so-called. fiscal federalism, which implied not only certain spheres of influence of central and local governments, but also granted the latter the rights to develop partially independent financial and budget policies. Unlike 1995, when local budgets were combined into a central budget, since 1996 each of these government institutions has a separate budget, with established rates of payments to and from local budgets for all payments of republican significance, especially in Tbilisi. In some cases, 100% of revenues collected locally were retained in local budgets. These include taxes on securities transactions, taxes on environmental pollution, customs duties, fixed foreign exchange duties and taxes on private capital. The 1996 budget was more stringent than the previous one. The government also undertook a major restructuring of extra-budgetary funds under the auspices of special public funds, including the social security fund, the health fund and the employment fund.
Loans, finance and banking. In April 1993, a temporary monetary unit, the coupon, was introduced in Georgia. After the catastrophic decline in the Georgian economy, by mid-1994 one dollar was exchanged at the rate of 900 thousand coupons (in mid-1993 it was worth 600 coupons). Hyperinflation devalued the coupon, so people mostly paid for purchases in Russian rubles or US dollars. In the period from 1992 to 1994, the National Bank of Georgia provided a loan to the Ministry of Finance in the amount of 28,812 billion coupons on preferential terms. It functioned as a machine that printed money rather than as an organization that ensured the sustainability of the economy by controlling the money supply. The lack of supply of goods and services, together with civil conflicts and political instability, became the main cause of hyperinflation in 1992-1994, which was further aggravated by the growth of corruption and chaos. In September 1995, the government introduced the long-awaited new currency - the lari. Residents of the country were given a week to exchange coupons at the rate of 1 million coupons for one lari, which corresponded to 1.3 dollars. In general, the monetary reform was successful and was completed in December 1995. In October 1995, the foreign exchange reserves of the National Bank increased from 97.6 million lari to 212.6 million lari, or 217.8%, mainly due to the sale of lari by the National Bank for Russian rubles and dollars. The National Bank bought 6.4 million dollars, the rest of the foreign currency funds came through the system of commercial banks. In 1995, the net foreign assets of the National Bank increased by 84.8 million lari. Net domestic assets increased by GEL 26 million, i.e. 100% The total volume of money supply in circulation increased by more than 500% (110.7 million lari). With the advent of the single currency, the implementation of monetary policy became easier. The next stage of economic reform began in 1996. The government focused on the process of structural transformation of the economy and building a market-oriented economy in a more stable macroeconomic environment. With the introduction of the lari, leading monetary institutions switched to a floating exchange rate system. At the end of the 1980s, approx. 86% of Georgia's revenue came from the public sector, mainly in the form of turnover taxes on state-owned enterprises (ca. 40% of all revenues) and taxes on corporate profits (ca. 30%). The rest of the income came from pension tax and personal income tax. Expenses went mainly to the social sphere (approx. 51%) and for investments in the public sector (approx. 45%). Social expenditures included education (25%), pensions (23%) and health care (12%). Lending and finance were controlled by the Georgian Directorate of the State Bank of the USSR, which was responsible for regulating the money supply, distributing loans and monitoring the activities of specialized banks in the republic. In 1991, the management of the State Bank was transformed into the National Bank of Georgia. After the collapse of the USSR, the budgetary and financial system of Georgia experienced a severe crisis. In 1993, the budget deficit was almost 80%. The lack of a special tax collection system, the decline in industrial production, massive credit issues from the National Bank and the explosive growth of the black market prevented the state from introducing a value added tax. The debt of enterprises to banks and suppliers in the first two months of 1994 reached 1 trillion. coupons ($4 million), and revenues for the same period amounted to less than 20% of the planned amount for the first quarter of 1994. The Georgian leadership hoped that the country's participation in the IMF and various European organizations would open access to badly needed loans and foreign assistance. Therefore, stabilization of the monetary unit has become absolutely necessary for the effective operation of new private banks and credit institutions. The National Bank of Georgia managed to successfully organize and carry out the monetary reform of 1995 thanks to the support of international financial organizations. In private banking, the situation is different. There are two main types of such banks: Soviet-style state banks that have been converted into commercial ones; and recently established banks. The first group of banks have large cash reserves but old-regime management and a legacy of heavy debt, while new banks tend to be thinly capitalized and have more limited banking experience. As of January 1, 1996, 103 commercial banks were registered by the National Bank. Net domestic assets in December 1995 amounted to 282.2 million lari, of which 146.4 million lari (or 52%) were loans intended for various sectors of the economy. Of this amount, 45.2 million lari (or 16% of total assets) accounted for non-performing loans, which grew by 37% in 1995, but did not increase in the first quarter of 1996. In 1995, net foreign currency assets of commercial banks decreased by 130% ( 34.5 million lari), and in 1996 increased by 21%. The former state-owned banks had more experience in paying bills and underwent restructuring in both banking management and technology. The five main state-owned banks were transformed into joint-stock companies, but 51% of the shares were still retained by the state. In 1995, the five major banks controlled 75% of lending funds. Industry Bank, which had the highest rating in August 1995, has 100 branches in Tbilisi and the regions. At first, he carried out active operations with enterprises of heavy and light industry, but since 1994, like many others, he began to play in the foreign exchange market. In 1995, Industry Bank merged with two other large state banks - Eximbank, founded on the basis of a branch of the former Vnesheconombank, and Sberbank with almost 90 branches that worked with savings in savings accounts. This merger was aimed at creating a large banking structure, although there was a danger of an unwanted monopoly. Thus, a two-tier unified banking system was gradually created in Georgia. One of the most important components of macroeconomic reform is the process of capital accumulation, which will subsequently be converted into bank capital and investment. In 1995, commercial banks carried out operations on deposits of joint-stock companies with a total amount in accounts of 91.9 million lari (35.4% of liabilities). Citizens' deposits totaled 4.9 million lari (1.7% of liabilities). The reluctance of depositors to keep their money in Georgian banks is caused by several reasons, the main of which was the bankruptcy of 126 investment and trust companies from the fall of 1993 to April 1995. The population, due to insufficient experience in the financial sector, was attracted by fraudulent investment pyramid schemes that promised annual payments percent from 800% and above. Lack of proper oversight by the National Bank and other government agencies led to a depositor crisis in April 1995, when 17 failed banks and trust companies failed to pay private depositors approx. 11-12 million dollars. The share of deposits in foreign currency in the total amount of deposits in commercial banks has increased since the beginning of 1996, when deposits in lari decreased by 7% by March 1996, and deposits in foreign currency increased by 70%. Traders held larger sums of money to pay for imports from foreign currency accounts rather than cash or non-cash lari. This fact indicated an increase in confidence in banks. In 1995, the government took decisive measures to regulate the banking system. The minimum starting capital of commercial banks had to be at least 500 thousand. dollars, and by December 1996 - 830 thousand dollars. This measure suspended the activities of many commercial banks. In addition, in accordance with the recommendation of the IMF, the Law “On Commercial Banks” was adopted. One of the main goals of banking and finance reform is to restructure the accounting system in accordance with international standards. In 1995, banks in several regions of Georgia entered into a unified electronic settlement system. In 1996, a regional intrabank network of non-cash payments was formed and the existing electronic system of non-cash payments was modernized. In 1995, Georgian commercial banks connected to the international telecommunications network of bank accounts SWIFT. By 1996, some banks had applied for membership in information systems such as Reuters.
SOCIETY
Since independence, the economic downturn has led to a labor market crisis, deteriorating public health, and reduced educational opportunities and social mobility. Traditional values ​​of friendship and family support have become increasingly important for survival in difficult conditions as the state has lost the ability to pay wages, provide employment and provide social benefits. The income of most families has fallen below the officially recognized poverty level. Refugees, almost 800 thousand pensioners and single mothers find themselves in the most difficult situation.
Lifestyle. Men play a leading role in social and family life. However, when a woman gets married, she can keep her maiden name, and the husband will not be stigmatized if he lives with his wife’s parents. Social life is centered in the family. Children are brought up in a fairly structured environment that instills in them respect for family values ​​and older people. Young people are expected to marry early and, when the time comes, take care of their parents. In cities, families are small, consisting of parents and an average of two children, but relatives always live nearby. Georgians are very fond of hosting lavish feasts in their homes, where all family members and close friends gather to exchange rumors, traditional praise and remember deceased relatives. Georgians are distinguished by European manners of behavior and have many similarities with neighboring Mediterranean ethnic groups in culinary preferences and the specifics of social relations. They observe customs of hospitality associated with the traditions of Middle Eastern cultures, pay special attention to foreign guests and respect education. Georgians maintain a strong regional identity, with many ethnic groups such as Mingrelians, Gurians and Kakhetians, who differ greatly from each other and even speak distinct dialects. In different regions of the country, the peculiarities of national cuisine, dance, music and folklore have been preserved, but all Georgians have a passion for singing and dancing. The most popular sport is football.
The life of society in the transition period. Economic difficulties have meant that many people can no longer afford to participate in full social life, which in Georgia means attending traditional gatherings of relatives and friends, receiving guests and showing hospitality, and giving gifts for birthdays and weddings. The possibility of such participation is an important indicator of social status, as well as a subject of moral obligations. The inability of most people to socialize has negatively affected the cohesion of society. Social ties between families have weakened, people are embarrassed to invite friends and relatives to their homes, because due to poverty they cannot give them a decent welcome. Migrants and internal refugees are sometimes completely rejected by local communities. Members of these communities envy them because they receive humanitarian aid and have certain privileges, which makes them a special social class.
Social structure and labor. In 1989, 49% of Georgians worked in the public sector, and 35% were included in “auxiliary agriculture” (i.e. worked on their own farms). land plots). About 14% were dependent on the state (for example, pensioners, widows and war veterans) and 2% lived on a stipend. After 1991, large-scale land privatization, encouragement of private enterprise, and the growth of cooperatives transformed Georgia's social structure. The rapid growth of the private sector, the introduction of fees for higher education and rising housing prices have reconfigured the structure of society and led to its stratification. Previously, all workers were united in 24 state trade unions, organized on a sectoral basis. Trade unions defended the interests of their members in the field of organizing working conditions, living conditions, recreation, health care, cultural and sports leisure, providing preschoolers with places in nurseries and kindergartens, and older children with vouchers to summer health camps. There was no right to strike, and trade union leaders worked closely with enterprise management under the overall control of the Communist Party. Workers made up 54% of the employed, office workers - 30%, collective farmers - 16%. After 1991, the Independent Confederation of Trade Unions replaced the official trade unions, and the Social Democratic Party began to claim the right to defend the political interests of workers. Life has shown that both of these organizations turned out to be ineffective in the struggle to improve living conditions. Subsequently, a system of labor exchanges was established to solve the problems of rapidly growing unemployment. But until mid-1993, a system for paying unemployment benefits had not yet been organized. During the reign of Gamsakhurdia, an arbitration court appeared to resolve labor disputes. Employees organized independent trade unions, giving rise to an independent civil service. Georgia has the only confederation of trade unions, consisting of approximately 30 industry associations. However, due to the economic crisis, the number of trade union members has decreased. In October 1995, the government raised the minimum wage to 6 lari ($4.8) and the maximum salary to 25 lari ($20.1). Those working in the private sector have higher salaries.
The status of women. In 1989 women made up almost 53% of the population of Georgia. Most women work, but despite ample opportunities to build a career, their low social status remains. There are many more women in industries such as public education and medicine, but they almost always occupy low-paying positions. In the 1970s and 1980s, women made up about half of all students in higher education. In the fields of medicine, education and humanities, the number of women reached 70-80% of the total number of students. About 16% of women marry at age 20 or younger, and 55% before age 25. Divorce is frowned upon in Georgia (in 1989 there were only 4% of divorced women). Typically, women work in the manufacturing sector and other jobs that do not require high qualifications when their children are already grown up. Currently, due to the difficult economic situation in the country, many women are forced to take on additional jobs, since their husbands either do not have jobs or receive low wages. In addition, household chores rest on the shoulders of women.
The youth. Almost 1/3 of the population of Georgia is under 19 years of age. After the collapse of the USSR, young people began to create clubs and youth groups. They took an active part in the revolutionary events in Georgia 1989-1992 as members of new political parties. In independent Georgia, unemployment hit young people especially hard. According to statistics from 1995, children from poor families often drop out of school or simply do not attend school because they do not have shoes or suitable clothing, especially winter clothing, textbooks and school supplies, or because they are forced to work and help their family . One of the difficult problems that has arisen in independent Georgia is “street” children who spend most of the day, and sometimes even the night, on the streets. They consist of children of poor people who cannot feed them, and orphans who have escaped from boarding schools and orphanages.
Social Security. Under Soviet rule, housing, healthcare and education were free, and food prices and transport tariffs were largely subsidized by the state. Almost half of Georgia's total budget in 1985 was spent on education and social security. Despite the benefits of state provision (partially paid maternity leave for one and a half years and unpaid leave for mothers for up to three years, retirement at the age of 55 for women and 60 for men, state pensions after 20 years of work for women and 25 years for men), support from the state was insufficient, and the quality of services in free institutions - clinics, hospitals, schools, kindergartens and nurseries - was low. Many older people could not live on their pensions and continued to work. Despite the world's largest number of doctors per capita (53.7 per 10 thousand inhabitants), life expectancy remained low and infant mortality rates high by Western standards. There wasn't enough medicine. The collapse of the USSR led to a crisis in the system of social and medical services. The government of independent Georgia carried out privatization of education, health care and social insurance. Expenditures on them in the state budget decreased from more than 45% to 18%. Due to hyperinflation, pensions and student scholarships have become worthless. Inflation and the economic crisis have seriously affected living standards. Although the official minimum wage was 1,700 rubles per month, in reality the cost of living for the average family in January 1993 was 22,160 rubles. In mid-1994, 27% of families had a monthly income of less than 100 thousand coupons ($0.67), and 28% - from 100 thousand to 300 thousand coupons ($0.67-2.0). According to the results of a survey in mid-1994, it turned out that after the country gained independence, the financial situation of 83% of families worsened. According to official statistics at the same time, only 60% of Georgian families lived below the poverty line. Increased unemployment and underemployment, meager wages and social security benefits, an energy crisis, a massive influx of refugees (especially from Abkhazia), and the collapse of social services (including health and education) led to widespread poverty that could not be addressed neither the government nor the newly emerging private sector. Wages in the public sector in 1995 ranged from 3 to 5 dollars per month, which was barely enough for a half-starved existence. Pensions and benefits received by refugees and other socially vulnerable groups of the population did not exceed 2-3 dollars. The decrease in income affected the volume of food consumed. Since 1990, food production and quality have decreased. The activities of government institutions were paralyzed due to a lack of budget funds. A significant factor in survival was the informal support provided to each other by members of extended families and relatives.
CULTURE
The cultural life of Georgia is nourished by Middle Eastern, European and local traditions. Georgian polyphonic singing, both secular and church, dates back to the 5th century. After the creation of the Georgian State Dance Ensemble at the end of the 19th century. Georgian dances have won recognition all over the world. Traditional crafts are still preserved, including enamel painting and artistic metalworking (jewelry, embossing). Despite the cultural influence of Persia and Turkey, Georgians have always gravitated towards Europe. Georgia in the 11th-12th centuries. experienced a renaissance, when monks in academies, churches and monasteries put forward new humanistic ideas. The flourishing of secular culture occurred in the 19th century, when Georgian writers and artists, under the influence of European ideas, enriched the literary language and created a rich national literature. Education in Georgia has old traditions. Medieval monasteries and academies were important centers of learning and preserved the national heritage even in times of foreign oppression. In 1915 there were 1,648 schools of all types in Georgia, but the majority of the population remained illiterate. The Soviet period was characterized by a rapid and massive expansion of education. Thanks to free and compulsory schooling, illiteracy was eliminated. In 1979, almost a third of employed people had higher or secondary specialized education (the highest figure in the USSR). Most children aged 7 to 18 attend school, with 3/4 of schools conducting instruction in Georgian, and higher education institutions teaching almost entirely in Georgian. In the early 1990s, political and economic instability threw the entire education system into chaos. After gaining independence, Georgia faced problems of financing and maintaining the education system.
Preschool education. Preschool education has suffered the most from the crisis. The proportion of children aged 3 to 6 years attending kindergartens fell from 42% in 1989 to 28-31% in 1993. Most local authorities can no longer provide food for kindergartens, and in order to survive, some public kindergartens have begun to take from parents a fee of 12-15 dollars per month. Children whose parents are unable to pay that kind of money attend cheaper kindergartens, which have a correspondingly lower quality of food and care. It is a common practice to rent out part of the premises of kindergartens in order to raise funds to pay teachers and service personnel. During the crisis, the number of kindergarten students in cities was almost twice as high as in rural areas (35% and 19% of the total number of children of the corresponding age, respectively). In cities, kindergartens are better supplied and employ more qualified personnel. Average school education is in the most deplorable state, since it covers a large number of students and requires significant costs for maintenance and reforms. New private schools have appeared. Tuition fees in most of them are quite high, but they provide students with better conditions and sometimes better education. The same can be said about those few public schools that have managed to find a Western partner or local sponsor to offset the costs and provide the conditions for a high level of teaching. The number of schools of both types is gradually increasing, and although they have a minority of students, they create healthy competition through innovations that are absent in the public education system. Comparison of data for the 1992/1993 academic year with data for 1994/1995 shows that the number of secondary schools decreased by 64 (or 2%), students - by 32.5 thousand (4.4%), teachers - by 7 thousand (8%), and the ratio of the number of students per teacher increased from 8.4 to 8.9. Higher education currently consists of a network of public universities and private “for-profit” institutions. In the 1995/1996 academic year, more than 90 thousand students studied at 28 state universities (about 50 thousand full-time, and the rest in the evening department), another 3 thousand people studied in graduate school in 59 specialties. In addition, there are 250 private institutes (185 in Tbilisi alone). State universities have highly qualified professors and teachers. However, some of them, in order not to lose their prestige and retain staff, opened paid branches. New institutions based on international partnership have been created. The European School of Management (sponsored by the Shevardnadze Foundation) provides high-quality education in management and finance (tuition is $600 per year, quite high for Georgia). A joint Georgian-American educational institution has been opened in Tbilisi - a branch of the American University of Hawaii. This university provides education in the fields of public administration, law and diplomacy, business and media. Although the fees are very high (over $5,000 for a bachelor's course), 20 students were enrolled in the 1994/1995 academic year. The Institute of Public Administration, a joint educational institution with the US National Academy of Social and Political Sciences, prepares masters of public administration based on American programs, textbooks and with the invitation of foreign teachers. According to statistics, the number of vocational school graduates in 1995 was 12.5 thousand people (almost 40% of the 1988 level), which is considered a good indicator in the current state of the economy. In Abkhazia, education in Georgian in schools is gradually being reduced. Since 1995, children admitted to the first grades of schools in the Gali region of Abkhazia were taught only in Russian. As a result, in grades 1-3, teaching was conducted primarily in Russian, even though the majority of the population in the area is Georgian. High school students studied Georgian in only nine Georgian schools in the area. The goal of this policy is the elimination of the Georgian language as a language of instruction and the introduction of education in Russian. The Cabinet of Ministers of Georgia in 1995 approved the state education reform program and the plan for its implementation, and the parliament in 1996 approved the “Law on Education in the Republic of Georgia”.
Literature and art. The first Georgian literary monuments date back to the 5th century. AD Many extraordinary personalities have enriched the literary heritage of Georgia. These include Shota Rustaveli (12th century); Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, author of an explanatory Georgian dictionary (1716); Ilya Chavchavadze, Alexander Kazbegi and Akaki Tsereteli (19th century); Galaktion Tabidze, Konstantin Gamsakhurdia, Niko Lordkipanidze, Mikheil Javakhishvili and Anna Kalandadze (20th century). Vivid works of prose and poetry, such as the epic poem The Knight in Tiger Skin, the poem by Merani Nikoloz Baratashvili (19th century), 40 epic works by Vazha Pshavela, (The Guest and His Host, The Wedding of a Dapper, etc. (19th-20th centuries) ; Gamsakhurdia's novel The Hand of the Great Master and Tabidze's poems Mtatsminda's Moon and the Wind Blows are universally recognized masterpieces.The works of Georgian poets and writers were translated into Russian by many poets, including Boris Pasternak and Yevgeny Yevtushenko.
Theater. Georgia has a long dramatic tradition starting with Georgiy Eristavi (1813-1864), and the troupe of the Drama Theater named after. Rustaveli is widely known in the modern theater world as one of the most creative and talented groups. Vaso Abashidze (1854-1926), comic actor, became the first editor of the Theater magazine. Veriko Andzhaparidze (1897-1987) was one of the most famous actresses in Georgia. She played approximately 100 roles in theater and 30 in films. The most successful roles include the roles of Desdemona, Cleopatra and Ophelia in the plays of Shakespeare and Medea in the play of Euripides. Ramaz Chkhikvadze has played in more than 100 plays, including leading roles in Richard II and King Lear, and gave a gala performance at the Haymarket Theater in London in 1988. Kakhi Kavsadze played Fortinbras in Hamlet, Jim in The Threepenny Opera, Simon Chachava in the Caucasian Chalk Circle, Lord Hastings in Richard the Third and Kent in King Lear. Guram Sagaradze played in more than 100 performances, including the role of the jester in King Lear. Cinematography originated in Georgia at the beginning of the 20th century. (the first film was made in 1912). Georgian films enjoy international recognition. Film directors such as Eldar Shengelaya (film Shirekilebi), Georgiy Chkheidze (Pirosmani) and Tengiz Abuladze (Repentance), Georgiy Danelia (Don't Cry!), Otar Ioseliani (Favorites of the Moon), Irakli Makharadze (Riders of the Wild West - Georgian Agile Riders) received for his work a number of international awards. Georgia is famous for its wall paintings of the 7th-13th centuries, which have been preserved in the Gelati Monastery, Aten Zion and in churches in Betania, Kintsvisi, etc. Georgian artists such as the legendary Niko Pirosmanishvili (Pirosmani), Gigo Gabashvili, David Kakabadze, Lado Gudiashvili are famous , Korneliy Sanadze, Elena Akhvlediani, Sergei Kobuladze, Simon Virsaladze and Ekaterina Bagdavadze. The Georgian State Museum of Modern Art displays paintings by such artists as Elena Akhvlediani, Alexander Bandzeladze, Vladimir Grigolia, Lado Gudiashvili and others. Georgian art and music are distinguished by their sophistication, combining both local and European styles. Artists such as Lado Gudiashvili, David Kakabadze and Elena Akhvlediani worked in Paris in the 1920s. Such Georgian sculptors as Elgudzha Amashukeli, Irakli Ochiauri and Zurab Tsereteli are world famous. Georgian architects, although not as individual as the masters who created the majestic churches of the pre-Soviet period, have made Tbilisi one of the most architecturally attractive cities of the former USSR. Georgian folk music, which has existed for over 1,500 years, is a striking combination of eastern and western influences. Georgian polyphony is characterized by a special vocal technique and the use of tones close to each other. Usually men sing in Georgia. A typical Georgian song is performed by three voices. The Tbilisi Conservatory has earned a reputation as an educational institution that trains excellent classical music performers. Notable among them are pianists Alexander Toradze and Eliso Virsaladze, violinist Liana Isakadze, bass Paata Burchuladze, singer Nani Bregvadze, pianist and music teacher Manana Doidzhashvili, violinist and music teacher Marina Iashvili. Georgia has its own symphony orchestra. Georgia is also famous for its composers. Dimitri Arakishvili (1873-1953), composer, musicologist and ethnographer, is known for one of the first Georgian operas, The Tale of Shota Rustaveli (1919); Meliton Balanchivadze 1862-1973), author of the first Georgian romances (1888) and the opera Tamara Kovarnaya (in the last production by Darejan Kovarnaya), Gia Kancheli (b. 1935) - author of the opera Let there be music, several symphonies and concerts, as well as music for the great number of films and performances (Caucasian Chalk Circle according to Brecht, Richard III according to Shakespeare). Bidzina Kvernadze (b. 1928) composed music for opera, ballet and dramatic performances, films, symphonic and piano music, as well as a number of works for choir and romances. Composer Zakhary Paliashvili (1871-1933) is known for his collection of Georgian folk songs and as the author of the operas Abesalom and Eteri and Daisi, based on folk legends.
Museums, libraries and scientific institutes. There are 118 museums in Georgia. Best known State Museum Georgia, transformed in 1919 from the Caucasian Museum (founded in 1852), which houses exhibits demonstrating the development of the civilization of Georgia and the Caucasus as a whole. The Historical and Ethnographic Museum with its collection of ancient Georgian dwellings and the State Museum of Art of Georgia with its “golden fund” are very interesting. This museum has five main sections: ancient Georgian art (with the famous enamels of the Khakhul triptych and the central enamel icon of the Mother of God), Russian, Soviet, Western European and Oriental art. The largest libraries in Georgia are the National Library, founded in 1846, with a collection of more than 7 million items; libraries of Tbilisi University and the Georgian Academy of Sciences, as well as the central libraries of the autonomous republics of Abkhazia and Adjara. The most prestigious institution in the country is the Georgian Academy of Sciences, which was separated in 1941 from the USSR Academy of Sciences. The structure of the Academy includes departments of natural, humanities and social sciences with 55 institutes. In 1991, the Academy had 57 academicians and 89 corresponding members. Georgia has produced a galaxy of world-famous scientists: Nikoloz Berdzenishvili (1894-1965) published the first textbook on the history of Georgia; Mose Janashvili (1855-1934), author of many scientific and popular works on history, ethnography and linguistics, most of which are devoted to Russian-Georgian relations; Nikoloz Muskhelishvili (1891-1976), mechanic and founder of the Georgian school of mathematics, president of the Georgian Academy of Sciences in 1941-1972; Alexander Tsagareli (1844-1929), the first Georgian professor-philologist, member of scientific societies in Russia, Norway, Italy, France, one of the founders of the State University of Georgia; Ilya Vekua (1907-1977), mathematician and mechanic, president of the Georgian Academy of Sciences in 1972-1977.
Mass media. The first printed books in Georgian appeared in the 17th century. In the late 1980s, there were more than a dozen state publishing houses. Almost 80% of the books were published in Georgian, the rest in Russian and languages ​​of national minorities. In 1985, 82 magazines (70 in Georgian) and 145 newspapers (127 in Georgian) were published. Regular radio broadcasting began in 1927, and television broadcasting in 1956. Before the collapse of Soviet power, the media were strictly controlled by the CPSU. After 1991, independent newspapers and television and radio programs appeared. There is no official censorship, and print journalists widely promote opposition to the government and criticize President Shevardnadze. Newspapers are published mainly in Georgian. The largest among them are the daily newspaper "Rezonansi" (leading among the independent press), "Sakartvelos Respublika" ("Georgian Republic", reflecting the official point of view of the government, "Free Georgia" (daily newspaper in Russian), "Evening Tbilisi" "Kavkasioni" ", "Droni", "Iveria Express", "7 Days". Other newspapers include the Georgian Times (in English) and the independent monthly Adamianis Uplebebi (Human Rights). In Tbilisi and other cities there are local radio stations. State radio stations broadcast mainly in Georgian. Radio Liberty makes weekly programs in Georgian and English languages. Several television channels broadcast programs to Georgia - Georgian channels one and two, Rustavi-2, Iberia, Eureka, the first stereo channel, Sakartvelos Khma and the first and second channels of Russian television. Cable television broadcasts in different areas of Tbilisi. Programs (MTV, Euro News, NBC and CNN) can be received via the satellite system of the Aeti television company.
Sport. The national sport in Georgia is football. The best Georgian team of the 1970-1980s was Dynamo Tbilisi, which won the USSR Championship twice and the European Cup in 1981. Now Georgian football teams have their own league. Georgian athletes have achieved fame in basketball, mountaineering and alpine skiing (popular in the country's mountain resorts - Bakuriani and Gudauri). Georgia is one of the centers mountain climbing; the most famous of the conquered mountain peaks- Kazbek (5033 m), Tetnuldi (4853 m) and Shkhara (5068 m). From 1952 to 1980, Georgian athletes, performing at Olympic Games As part of the Soviet team, they won 23 gold medals. At the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, two Georgian athletes won bronze medals in the wrestling competition. For more than 30 years, Georgian chess players retained the title of world champions.
Holidays. After the collapse of the USSR, the new government replaced the old communist holidays with patriotic and religious holidays, such as Independence Day (May 26) and St. George (November 23). Many Georgians celebrate Christmas and Easter.
STORY
The first traces of the presence of primitive man on the territory of Georgia probably date back to the Middle Paleolithic. In the Early Eneolithic (7300-6100 years ago), a large center of agriculture arose in eastern Georgia. The oldest Bronze Age monuments in the Akhaltsikhe region appeared ca. 5000 years ago. In the middle of the Bronze Age, the largest cultural center existed in the Trialeti region. At the end of the Bronze Age (about 3000 years ago), the Kurgan cultures spread, which were associated with the migration from the south of the proto-Georgian tribes (Diaukhs, Tabali, Muskhis and Colkhians). They knew how to smelt iron and process metal, and their exploits were reflected in the Greek myths of the Golden Fleece and Prometheus. According to the stories of the Greeks, these symbols of wealth and knowledge were located in the Caucasus. The Assyrians, who invaded the Caucasus and pushed the ancient Georgian tribes to the north, reigned in the 8th-7th centuries. BC. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC) noted that the Assyrian king Sargon II moved to Colchis with part of the Israeli population, which he removed from Palestine in 722 BC. The western Georgian kingdom of Colchis and the eastern Kartli (Iberian) kingdom were formed approximately in the 6th century. BC. Both of them had political and economic ties with the Greeks, the Achaemenid and Parthian states. According to the instructions of Strabo and Pliny, both states prospered. In the 1st century BC. Roman legions under the command of Pompey the Great established Roman rule in Colchis and forced Kartli to sign treaties with Rome. Around 330 AD. Christianity was introduced to Kartli. This state was conquered by the Sassanid Empire in 523 AD, and Colchis was annexed to the Byzantine Empire in 562 AD. At the beginning of the 7th century. Byzantium established its power over Kartli. Most of Georgia was conquered by the Arabs between the mid-7th and 9th centuries.
Middle Ages. At the end of the 10th century. King Bagrat III united the eastern and western parts of Georgia into a single state. His descendants (Bagratids) ruled in Georgia until 1801. The monarchy and united Georgia were finally strengthened under David IV the Builder (1089-1125) and Queen Tamara (1184-1213). The 12th century became the “golden age” of the country’s cultural and political development. This was the era of prosperity of large Georgian academies in Gelati and Ikalto, at this time the bright talent of the poet Shota Rustaveli (who dedicated the epic poem The Knight in the Tiger's Skin to Queen Tamara) manifested itself, and goldsmiths Beka and Beshken Opizari worked. Many temples were built. Georgian warriors took part in the Crusades, and Georgian scientists were known in the monasteries of Palestine and Greece. By the beginning of the 13th century. The Georgian kingdom, stretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, became one of the most powerful states in the region and had trade links with both Europe and the East. His period of greatness ended with the Mongol-Tatar invasion in the 1220s, and the Georgian kings and aristocracy were unable to maintain the integrity of the country, with the exception of the short reign of George V the Illustrious (1314-1346). After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Georgia was cut off from the Christian world, and subsequently subjected to Turkish and Persian conquests. Even under such great kings as Vakhtang VI (1703-1712 and 1719-1724), who codified Georgian laws, and Heraclius II (1744-1798), who reunited Eastern Georgia, the Georgians were unable to effectively defend themselves against raids by mountain tribes from the north and Muslims from the south.
Russian rule. In 1783, Irakli II concluded an agreement with the Russian Empress Catherine II, which placed the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom under the protection of Russia. In 1801 Russia annulled the treaty and annexed the kingdom. The last king of the Bagration dynasty, George XII of Kartli-Kakheti, died shortly before the annexation was announced. Western Georgia in 1803-1864 was piecemealized into the Russian Empire, especially after the Russian-Persian wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828 and the Russian-Turkish wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. Anti-Russian uprisings that flared up from time to time were quickly and brutally suppressed. In the 19th century There have been great changes in the social and political life of Georgia. The abolition of serfdom, the growth of cities, the improvement of education and the development of industry influenced the formation of the Georgian nation. Tbilisi (Tiflis) became the administrative and commercial center of the entire Caucasus. Peasants came to cities by rail to find work. Nationalist intelligentsia, inspired by European ideas of freedom and self-determination, led the campaign for autonomy. Georgia experienced a second wave of literary and artistic revival based on new ideas and works being discussed in Russia and the rest of Europe. In the 1890s, a Marxist group called the Mesame-dasi (Third Group) agitated for a national uprising against the Armenian businessmen and Russian officials who dominated political life in Georgia. By 1905, the Georgian section of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) turned out to be the most powerful socialist organization in the Russian Empire. After the RSDLP split into Bolshevik and Menshevik factions in 1903, the majority of Georgian Marxists joined the Menshevik faction. After the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy in 1917, power passed into the hands of the Russian Provisional Government and the Georgian councils, which were dominated by the Mensheviks. Soon after the resignation of the Provisional Government, the Mensheviks seized power in Georgia. After a short period of federalism with neighboring Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Georgian government led by the Mensheviks declared the country's independence on May 26, 1918. With the consent of the Mensheviks, German and Turkish troops occupied Georgia in June 1918; in December they were replaced by British troops, who remained here until July 1920. The Bolsheviks raised an armed uprising in February 1921 and, with the help of the Red Army, overthrew the Menshevik government.
Soviet period. In 1921 Georgia became a Soviet republic. In December 1922, it, along with Armenia and Azerbaijan, was included in the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) as part of the USSR (formed on December 30, 1922). In 1936, the TSFSR was liquidated, and Georgia became one of the union republics of the USSR. In the 1920s, economic reconstruction began with the construction of 20 large industrial enterprises. By 1926, industry and agriculture had reached 1913 levels and the transport system had been restored. A program to eliminate illiteracy was implemented, the social status of skilled workers and intellectuals increased, and scientific and educational institutes were created. However, hopes for political autonomy of Georgia within the Soviet state were destroyed by the policies of I.V. Stalin. Opposition to Stalin's dictatorial methods of governance and his campaigns of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization of agriculture was especially strong among Georgian communists. To eliminate this opposition, Stalin appointed L.P. Beria as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia, who held this post from 1931 to 1938, and later became the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR. Under Beria, collectivization in rural areas was carried out especially brutally, and the opposition was eventually destroyed through mass purges, during which tens of thousands of people died (party activists, intellectuals, specialists and anyone suspected of dissatisfaction with the Stalinist regime). In 1941-1945, approx. died on the fronts of World War II. 300 thousand Georgians. In 1944, approximately 100,000 Meskhetians (a mixed group of Muslim Georgians and Turks) were deported from southern Georgia to Central Asia on false charges of collaborating with the advancing Germans, who never actually crossed the Greater Caucasus. After the death of Stalin and the execution of Beria in 1953, state terror ceased in Georgia. Many Georgians respected their compatriot I.V. Stalin, and in March 1956 they had to resort to military force to suppress mass protests that broke out in protest against the exposure of Stalin's personality cult. However, Khrushchev weakened the oppressive centralized government, and Georgia gained greater independence in managing the economy and cultural life. When V.P. Mzhavanadze was the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia in 1953-1972, nationalism and corruption flourished in the republic. Mzhavanadze was removed from his position. He was replaced by E.A. Shevardnadze, who had previously been the chairman of the KGB of Georgia. In the 1970s, a dissident movement emerged in Georgia led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Merab Kostava. The course of perestroika, proclaimed in the late 1980s by M.S. Gorbachev, led to a rapid change of leaders of the Communist Party of Georgia. On April 9, 1989, a demonstration in support of Georgian independence was brutally suppressed by Soviet troops in Tbilisi. During this action, 20 young Georgians died. In the multi-party elections in October 1990, the coalition of Zviad Gamsakhurdia, the Round Table - Free Georgia bloc, won. Having a majority of seats in the new Supreme Council, which met in November 1990, Gamsakhurdia's supporters elected him to the post of Chairman of the Supreme Council. At its first meeting, the Supreme Council decided to liquidate the autonomous region of South Ossetia, declared the conscription of Georgians into the Soviet armed forces illegal and established an independent National Guard. In March 1991, the Georgian government refused to hold a referendum on the future of the USSR on the territory of the country; instead, it held a referendum on Georgian independence. 95% of the electorate took part in the referendum, and 93% of those who took part in the referendum voted for independence. On April 9, 1991, the Supreme Council adopted the Act on the restoration of state independence of Georgia.
Independent Georgia. At the end of April 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia adopted a new constitution and elected Zviad Gamsakhurdia to the post of President of the republic. Direct presidential elections took place on May 26, and Gamsakhurdia received almost 87% of the vote. However, in a very short time, the president's helpless economic policies and his struggle with the internal opposition led to popular discontent, and in December 1991, fighting broke out between the president's supporters and the opposition, which included the National Guard. After several weeks of fighting in central Tbilisi in January 1992, Gamsakhurdia was removed from his post and fled the country. The Military Council, headed by Tengiz Kitovani, commander of the National Guard, took power into its own hands, dissolved parliament and suspended the Constitution. In March 1992, the Military Council announced its dissolution and the creation of a State Council, consisting of approximately 70 representatives of 36 opposition parties. E.A. Shevardnadze became the Chairman of the State Council. In October 1992, elections to the new parliament took place. Shevardnadze was elected its chairman, receiving 96% of the votes. In July 1992, Shevardnadze ended the 18-month war with the Ossetian minority, which began after the South Ossetian Autonomous Region was liquidated, but could not stop the war with the Abkhazians that suddenly broke out in August 1992. The Abkhazians, like the Ossetians, pursued a policy aimed at separating from Georgia. To prevent separation. The war in Abkhazia was complicated by the intervention of Russian troops stationed at military bases in the autonomous republic and irregular armed forces sent by the Confederation of Peoples of the Caucasus (an organization founded by extreme radical elements in the Russian autonomous republics North Caucasus). In 1994, the Abkhazians defeated the Georgian government forces and pushed them out of Abkhazia. Gamsakhurdia's supporters immediately after his removal launched a partisan struggle. During 1992-1993, they launched terrorist attacks against state leaders and strategic economic targets. They enjoyed especially strong support in Western Georgia. In the fall of 1993, Gamsakhurdia tried to return to power, starting a short but brutal civil war. Shevardnadze was forced to call on Russian troops for help. Gamsakhurdia was killed under unclear circumstances in January 1994. In exchange for Russian military assistance, Georgia agreed to join the CIS. After 1995, Georgia entered a period of stabilization. Significant progress was achieved in the negotiations on the Ossetian-Georgian conflict. The Georgian parliament is carrying out economic reform in cooperation with the IMF and the World Bank and is betting on the restoration of the Ancient Silk Road - the Eurasian Corridor, using geographical position Georgia as a bridge for the transit of goods between Europe and Asia. Russian peacekeepers and UN observers are currently stationed in Abkhazia, but both groups are forced to limit their activities for fear of being undermined. minefields or come under fire from partisans. Meanwhile, representatives of the UN and other peacekeeping organizations are encouraging the restoration of an atmosphere of cooperation and trust in the region. As a result, 20 thousand refugees returned to the Gali region. Since 1996, there have been no large-scale armed clashes in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, but partisan activity in Abkhazia does not stop.

- the capital and at the same time The largest city Georgia, located on the banks of the Kura River in the Tbilisi Basin. A noisy, cheerful, faithful to traditions and at the same time actively developing city with one and a half million inhabitants - this is what it looks like modern capital Georgia in the eyes of travelers.

What makes Tbilisi especially attractive is rich history, with its roots going back centuries. You can wander endlessly through the quarters of the old part of the city, inhaling the exciting aromas of national pastries and admiring the ancient architecture of the local buildings. Over more than one and a half thousand years of existence, Tbilisi has managed to acquire so many historical attractions and cultural heritage that they would be more than enough for several ordinary cities.

Video: Tbilisi

History of Tbilisi

Officially, the history of Tbilisi is usually counted from the 5th century. The city was founded by the king of Iberia Vakhtang Gorgasali. Ancient legend says that during a hunt, the formidable monarch shot a pheasant. The dead bird fell into one of the thermal ponds and was boiled. This fact struck Gorgasali so much that he ordered to found a city on this place and call it Warm Spring (in the local dialect - Tbilisi). Historians are skeptical about this version, preferring to correlate the emergence of the fort with the ancient Roman era. During archaeological excavations in this area, the remains of ancient baths and mosaic fragments were found, indicating that the first settlements arose here in the first centuries of our era.

Since 626, Tbilisi was subject to regular invasions by Arab armies. Enemy troops robbed the local population and ravaged the city. Only in 1122, with the coming to power of King David the Builder, relative calm reigned in Georgia, which lasted a little more than a century. A short calm was again replaced by military invasions: for several centuries the city was alternately besieged by Arab, Mongol, and Turkish conquerors.

From 1801 to 1917 Georgia was part of the Russian Empire. During this period, Tbilisi gained long-awaited stability and the protection of a more powerful power. The city has grown significantly economically and has acquired numerous commercial and industrial enterprises. After the October Revolution. Tbilisi became the capital of independent Georgia, which it remained until 1926. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the city regained its former status as an administrative and cultural center.

Districts of Tbilisi: where tourists should go first

The Kura River is not only a geographical object, but also a water border that divides Tbilisi into two parts. Officially, the city is divided into districts: some of them are rich in various architectural monuments, and some are typical residential areas that are not popular with tourists.

The record holder for the number of attractions is Old city, which is also the historical center of the capital. By the way, it is on its territory that the legendary “sulfur baths” are located, which people are so proud of local residents. From this part of Tbilisi it’s a stone’s throw to the area with the sonorous name Sololaki. The place is ideal for walking, during which you can admire the features of the local architecture. There is something to see in Avlabari. Historians suggest that it was from here that the construction of the future capital began. On the territory of the quarter are the Tsminda Sameba Cathedral, the palace of Queen Darejan and the ruins of an Armenian temple.

Another interesting area is Mtatsminda. There are few truly ancient buildings here, but there are plenty of entertainment venues, shops and restaurants. Chugureti will be of more interest to pilgrims who come to Tbilisi to pray and worship religious shrines. Most of the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches are located here. People usually go to Ortachala to visit the ruins of the former city wall and the Church of St. Nicholas.

Sights of Tbilisi

The vast majority of tourist routes begin from the Old Town (Qala). It is divided into two parts: Zamokala – Upper town and Kvemokala - Nizhny. Today this is the most romantic district of Tbilisi, which has preserved its ancient monuments and is not disfigured by modern faceless buildings. Narrow streets paved with bricks, clay houses entwined with grapes, impregnable walls of the castle of Queen Darejan - all these are integral features of the historical character of the quarter. It is in the Old Town that the subtle spirit of the mysterious East hovers. Arabic motifs are evident in architectural bas-reliefs and ancient frescoes, carpet patterns and aromas of dishes generously seasoned with tart spices...

Abanotubani is a place worth visiting, if not for the purpose of treatment, then at least for the sake of mental relaxation. Tbilisi sulfur springs have been known since the 16th century. Over time, the underground springs were covered with stone domes made in the Arabic style. So the healing springs turned into health baths.

Rustaveli Avenue

Rustaveli Avenue is not the oldest, but it has become a legendary place in Tbilisi, which definitely should not be missed. The one and a half kilometer avenue planted with plane trees is decorated with a fountain, next to which it is easy to find a monument to Pushkin, as well as the building of the Rustaveli Theater. This is also where National Museum Georgia, which deserves a visit because of its scandalous and controversial exhibition dedicated to the “Soviet occupation”.

Walking along Rustaveli Avenue you can look into the Vorontsov Palace. An elegant white building in the Renaissance style appeared here in 1868 and was originally intended for the Tsar's governor in the Caucasus. By the way, the last resident of the palace was Stalin’s mother, Ekaterina Dzhugashvili.

Another interesting object on Rustaveli Avenue is the Melik-Azaryants apartment building. Gigantic structure was built before the revolution and equipped with last word technology. The basement floors of the house housed cozy coffee shops and entertainment venues. From the wall bas-reliefs of the building one can trace the tragic events in the life of the owner. For example, the plaster wreaths on the façade are reminiscent of the death of a rich man’s beloved daughter. The fate of Melik-Azaryants himself is sad. After the October Revolution, the building was nationalized, and the former owner was given a tiny closet in it. Today, this luxurious symbol of Tbilisi is gradually falling into disrepair. This is especially noticeable if you look at the house from the yard.

The avenue ends at Freedom Square. The place is famous for the fact that it is here that all sorts of political battles take place from time to time. If you are visiting the city for the first time, it would be a good idea to take a look at the former city hall building. It houses a tourist information center where you can get the necessary information about local attractions and a map of Tbilisi.

The most ancient Orthodox church in Tbilisi that has survived to this day is the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (Anchiskhati is the second name). The laconic, austere building, designed in the form of a basilica with three naves, was destroyed and rebuilt many times. The most ancient part interior decoration The temple is an altarpiece, which was created in 1683.

Metekhi

One of the oldest settlements on the territory of modern Tbilisi is located on the banks of the Kura River, on a steep, sheer cliff. The Metekhi region originated under the first Georgian king Vakhtang Gorgasal, who erected his residence in this very place. In those immemorial times, the very word “metekhi” was used to describe the area around the palace.

For several centuries, the main decoration of the quarter was the Metekhi Church of the Mother of God. According to legend, Queen Tamara herself came here to pray. The church faced a difficult fate: in the 19th century, the building was given over to soldiers' barracks. The Soviet period also contributed to the destruction. The last internal partitions of the church were demolished already in 1974, and an experimental theater was located in the building itself. Only in 1988 the temple was completely restored and returned to the Orthodox Church.

Narikala Fortress

It is still unknown exactly when this large-scale fortress complex arose on Mount Mtsatminda. What is clear is that already in the 4th century. the walls of the Shuris-Tsikhe fortification (the first name of the structure) successfully held back the onslaught of enemy troops. For almost one and a half thousand years, the fortress was periodically occupied by either Arab or Mongol armies, which could not but affect the appearance of the buildings. Today travelers can see only remnants of Narikala's former grandeur. Unfortunately, most of the fortifications have been irretrievably lost. But on its territory, the Church of St. Nicholas, built in the 12th century, has been completely reconstructed.

Georgian Betania

Founded in the 11th century, the Betania Monastery is one of the most successful examples of Georgian temple architecture. The building has been surprisingly preserved in its original form. What’s interesting: the monastery remained active even during the Soviet era, although officially the monks were listed as caretakers church museum. You need to go to Betania to look at the ancient frescoes, icons and unique carved decorations of the altar of the monastery church.

The majestic temple appeared on the banks of the Kura River in the 6th century, receiving its name in honor of Mount Zion. Subsequently, the church building was destroyed by the Arab army, after which it was rebuilt. The Zion Cathedral houses one of the main shrines of the Georgian Orthodox Church- St. Nina's cross.

The Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, the tallest temple in the country and the national symbol of modern Georgia, is located in the Avlabari region. This is a new building in Tbilisi, around which scandalous rumors still persist. There is an opinion that the temple was erected on the site of an ancient Armenian cemetery. The territory of the ancient necropolis was cemented, and the remains and tombstones were simply disposed of.

The first church on the site of the modern temple appeared in the 6th century. Six centuries later, the first cathedral was built here, named in honor of St. George, who in the middle of the 18th century. replaced by a new building. Today's temple is the result of restoration work in 1910. The inside of the building is decorated with unique fresco paintings.

Caravanserai Atsruni

The oldest “shopping center” in Tbilisi was built in 1818. It housed more than two dozen shops, as well as numerous warehouses. Today, in the building of the caravanserai there is a modest museum exhibition that introduces guests to the history of the city. The rest of the area, as before, is occupied by retail outlets.

Botanical Garden

A reserve with rare and exotic plant species appeared in Tbilisi at the end of the 19th century. Today the garden area is 128 hectares, on which more than three and a half thousand representatives of the world of flora grow. There are convenient paths on its territory, and there are several artificial reservoirs. Those who wish can take a break and relax on the benches located in different parts of this unique park.

A 156-meter suspension bridge over the Kura River connects the Old City with the areas of modern Tbilisi. In the evenings, incredible transformations occur with the structure. A multi-level lighting system turns the building into a fantastic installation, shimmering with a million colorful lights.

Food and drinks: what to try in Tbilisi and where to do it best

Hiking, trips, excursions and outdoor recreation - all this satisfies cultural hunger, but, unfortunately, does not fill the stomach. But local cafes cope well with this problem. Traditional dishes of Tbilisi, which can be ordered in any establishment, from a tiny eatery to a high-status restaurant, are khachapuri and khinkali flatbread.

There are many catering outlets in the Georgian capital, but not all of them deserve the authority of visitors. Among the locals, for example, the Kakhelebi restaurant is very popular. The small establishment is famous for its aromatic pastries and huge portions. Don’t be confused by the fact that the restaurant is quite small: the food here is excellent. Celebrities also like to visit Kakhelebi, so don’t be surprised if a “face from the cover” flashes at the next table. Excellent national cuisine and an amazing atmosphere await travelers at Gabriadze Cafe.

You can try traditional Georgian dishes prepared according to 19th century recipes at Barbarestan. The establishment is interesting for its authentic interior and high quality service. For a pleasant pastime, it is recommended to go to Tsiskvili. The restaurant with an interesting menu, intricate interior and rich entertainment program is located away from the city center, on Beliashvili Street.

Having lunch in a Tbilisi restaurant and not ordering wine is a sign of bad manners, especially since the wines here are truly wonderful. And if the drink is also served in a clay bottle, you can assume that you have chosen the right establishment. Although it is better to get acquainted with the local wine list in special cellars, like “Vinoground” or g.Vino. You can eat “cheap and cheerful” in the so-called dukhans - small taverns that the residents of Tbilisi themselves adore. You shouldn’t expect a special atmosphere from such establishments, but here you can try real home cooking: simple and satisfying.

An option for those who want not only delicacies, but also live communication is the Deserter Market. Stroll around the food aisles, look at the delicious pyramids of churchkhela, mountains of candied fruits, cheeses, nuts and spices, and then buy what you like. By the way, it’s not forbidden to try a product “by heart” and bargain, so don’t be shy!

Shopping

Rarely will a tourist allow himself to return from a trip without gifts and souvenirs, especially since it is incredibly difficult to refuse shopping in Tbilisi. For standard shopping, large ones are suitable shopping centers, for example, “East Point” or “Tbilisi Mall”. There are enough boutiques of European brands in the city. Their prices are usually inflated, so it is worth shopping only during seasonal sales.

Those who are interested in authentic souvenirs can take a stroll through the flea market near the Dry Bridge. It’s easy to get hold of unusual interior items, antique icons or ancient Georgian daggers (which in fact may not be so old). An interesting souvenir shop is located on Rustaveli Street. The quality of the goods in the shop differs significantly from market “analogues”, as do the prices.

You shouldn't leave Tbilisi without taking a couple of bottles of wine with you. To avoid possible disappointments, buy the drink in specialized stores, some of which are located on the street. Leselidze. Lovers of national jewelry are recommended to visit the Tbilisi Gold Exchange. This is where you can find the famous minankari. Well, for those who are concerned about searching for an original carpet, the direct route is to Caucasian Carpets Gallery.

Where to stay in Tbilisi

The issue of housing in Tbilisi is easily resolved. If your travel budget is unlimited, then you can afford a luxurious holiday in five-star hotels such as Ambassadori, Hotels & Preference Hualing Tbilisi, Radisson Blu Iveria Hotel. A standard double room will cost from 415 to 540 GEL/day. For those looking for more modest deals, three-star options await: Flamingo Group Hotel, Rustaveli Hotel, Diamond Hotel. The cost of a double room in such places ranges from 62-125 GEL. Those who like reasonable savings will have to choose hostels and guest houses, like Envoy Hostel, Guest House Chubini, Blue Palm, etc.

Sometimes travelers prefer not to waste time searching for a suitable hotel and simply rent housing from the local population (an entire apartment or a room). This option has its advantages: you can always bargain with the owner of the house and lower the price a little.

When choosing a place to stay, it is worth considering that in Tbilisi, as in any other tourist place, the most expensive housing is located in the historical center of the city. Sometimes the price of a hotel room even includes beautiful view from the balcony. At the same time, a room with windows facing the courtyard will cost significantly less.

Transport

Tbilisi has its own metro, which has two lines. To use its services, you will have to get a Metromoney smart card and, if necessary, top up its balance. The second common type of local transport is buses and minibuses. You can board the first ones at official stops, but minibuses will have to be stopped by yourself, with a wave of your hand. The main thing is to have time to do this in advance, before the car rushes past you.

In Tbilisi, the names of all bus stops and metro stations are written strictly in Georgian, without Russian transcription. So, going to independent travel around the city, it is better to check the route with local residents. The second option is to first learn the Georgian alphabet.

An option for those who can afford to fork out a little is a taxi. By the way, it is not customary here to equip your car with a meter, so it is better to agree on payment in advance. Feel free to bargain and argue: most of the drivers are local residents who simply earn extra money as a private driver.

Travelers who do not want to depend on city transport can rent a car. The service is provided by several rental companies (Geo Rent Car, Avis, Hertz, Luxury Car Rental), whose offices are located at the airport, as well as large hotels. On average, renting a car will cost from 116 GEL. By the way, traffic jams in Tbilisi are a common phenomenon, and parking is mostly paid (2-3 GEL/day).

To get acquainted with the picturesque views from Mount Mtatsminda, it is better to take the funicular. This vehicle appeared in Tbilisi back in 1903 and is a unique landmark of the city.

How to get there

There are two ways to get to the capital of Georgia - by plane and by bus. Tbilisi is connected to Moscow by regular direct flights from Vnukovo, Sheremetyevo and Domodedovo. Transportation is carried out by Georgian Airways, Aeroflot and S7. On average, the flight takes just over two and a half hours.

Connecting flights (with transfers) are offered by Russian S7, Latvian Air Baltic, Greek Ellinair and Belarusian Belavia. You can go to Tbilisi not only from Moscow, but also from St. Petersburg. departure Northern capital carried out by Aeroflot, LOT Polish Airlines, Belavia and S7. Travel time is 6 hours or more.

Once a week a bus leaves from Moscow to Tbilisi. The trip takes about 36 hours excluding stops.

Calendar of low prices for air tickets

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In the heart of the Caucasus Mountains is the city of Tbilisi (until 1936 Tiflis) - the capital of the Republic of Georgia. It is quite difficult to find on the world map another capital of a state with the same ancient and rich history.

According to legend, the city was founded by King Vakhtang Gorgasali. While hunting, the royal falcon grabbed a pheasant and, under the weight of its burden, fell into hot spring. Both birds were boiled in boiling water in the blink of an eye. After the incident, the king ordered the founding of a city in this unusual place. But pragmatic archaeologists and historians refute this poetic version of the founding of the city and claim that Tbilisi has existed since the 4th century. AD, and this is long before the reign of King Gorgasali. But the undoubted fact remains that the settlement in this place arose precisely thanks to the warm sulfur springs, because in translation from Georgian “tbili” means “warm”.

Tbilisi, like many capitals of the world, is not only the cultural and administrative center of its country, but also one of the largest industrial centers in Georgia. The largest machine-building and metalworking plants in the republic are located here: machine-tool plant, aviation plant named after. Dimitrov, agricultural machinery, wine-making equipment, iron foundry, etc., as well as light and food industry enterprises.

Thanks to its versatility, Tbilisi will provide a decent vacation, full of joy and positive emotions, for people of different ages and taste preferences.

Climate

Tbilisi stretches along a long narrow strip along the river Chickens(Mtkvari) by Tbilisi basin almost 30 km, reaching the slopes of nearby mountains. The influence of the Black Sea is still felt here, because... The Greater Caucasus ranges run from west to east, so the climate in this part of Georgia is considered subtropical with long, hot summers (air temperatures can reach +40 ºС). Winter is mild with an average temperature of about +1 ºС, spring and autumn are warm and rainy. The greatest amount of precipitation falls from April to June.

Nature

Natural beauty is a source of pride for the Georgian capital. From almost anywhere in the city you can admire the mountain peaks and river Mtkvari, sparkling merrily in the sun and carrying its waters across the entire city. In the warm season, Tbilisi is literally surrounded by greenery and fragrant with the aroma of all kinds of flowers.

In the heart of the city lies Tbilisi Botanical Garden. In the Middle Ages, there were royal gardens here, which after Georgia became part of the Russian Empire became the property of the state and received the status of a Botanical Garden. A river flows through it Tsavkisistskali, dividing the garden into two parts. There are several picturesque bridges across the river, there are forty meter waterfall. Amazing plants were brought here from all parts of the planet: from North America and Japan, Siberia and China, the Mediterranean and the Himalayas. There is a unique collection of medicinal Georgian plants.

Without leaving the city limits, you can visit the sea. In the northeast of Tbilisi, adjacent to Tbilisi national park, spread out Tbilisi Sea, more precisely the 9 km long Tbilisi Reservoir, created in 1952.

Three kilometers from the city at an altitude of 800 m above sea level there is a small Turtle Lake, formed by underground springs. You can get to it by cable car.

And, of course, speaking about the natural features of Tbilisi, we should mention the thermal springs, thanks to which the city appeared. Today this place occupies a block Abanotubani, there are world-famous baths that have been operating since the 16th century.

Attractions

To visit all the most beautiful and interesting places Tbilisi, you will need to come to this amazing city more than once, and, without a doubt, everyone will find a place to their liking.

As a rule, sightseeing in Tbilisi begins with Old town, historical center capital Cities. The whole of it is built up with two- and three-story houses, twined with vines. Each house has its own story, funny and sad, fabulous and completely true, which a local resident you meet is ready to tell you with the readiness of a real guide.

In the Old Town on Mount Mtatsminda there is Narikala fortress(“Impregnable Fortress”), which is considered the soul of Tbilisi. The mountain offers amazing views of the city.

From Narikala fortress hiking trail leads to the monument " Kartlis Deda”, which translated means “Mother of Georgia”. Then, according to a one-of-a-kind Betlemi staircase street past the temples of the 9th-10th centuries. you can go down to Zion Cathedral, built in the VI-VII centuries. AD Within its walls is kept the main Christian relic of Georgia - the cross of St. Nina, the enlightener of Georgia.

Anchiskhati― the oldest church in Tbilisi, built in the 6th century. ― received its name in honor of the Anchi Icon, deeply revered by Georgian Christians. This is the only building that has been partially preserved almost since the founding of Tbilisi.

One of the main attractions of the city and its symbol is Metekhi temple, which was once the residence of the Georgian kings.

Not far from the temple are the famous Tbilisi sulfur baths: Iraklievskaya, Kazennaya, Bebutovskaya and etc.

And, of course, it’s impossible not to look at the central street of the capital - Shota Rustaveli Avenue(Georgian poet of the 12th century). Dozens of city attractions are located on one street. This and National Museum of Georgia, And Church of St. George(Kashueti), and Opera and Ballet Theatre, and much more.

Nutrition

On the streets of Tbilisi you can find restaurants serving cuisine from many countries of the world: from Chinese and Indian to French and Italian. But, of course, nothing beats an authentic Georgian restaurant in the heart of the country.

Georgian cuisine is replete with all kinds of dishes: ojakhuri, khinkali, khachapuri, kuchmachi, pkhali, kubdari and other tasty, but not entirely clear names. Hospitable waiters will help you understand all their diversity and choose something exactly to your taste. National songs are played in many restaurants and dance groups perform.

Breakfast on the restaurant terrace In the shadow of Metekhi", from where you can admire the Narikala fortress and the Old Town, will set the tourist in the right mood for a fruitful walk around the city. Afterwards, if you get hungry, you can have a snack at fast food restaurants " Shemoikhede Genatsvale" Khinkali lovers should definitely visit " House of Khinkali"on Rustaveli Ave.

In addition to all kinds of restaurants, cafes and bars, you can sit quietly, drink tea and “digest” everything you see in small teahouses, and on a hot day, be sure to treat yourself to the most delicious ice cream in the city in the establishment Luca Polare("Polar bear").

Accommodation

Tbilisi hotels offer their guests rooms of varying comfort and price categories (from $25 to $370 per night). Large hotels are "Astoria", Holiday Inn, Grand Hotel, Betsy's Hotel and etc.

More than 60 hostels are open today for tourists in Tbilisi. The cost of living there ranges from $8 to $25 per night.

You can also rent an apartment for daily rent in any part of the city. The cost of renting apartments starts from $35.

Entertainment and relaxation

There are a huge number of museums and exhibition halls in Tbilisi. The oldest Georgian art is the creation of jewelry from cloisonne enamel. Museum of Art stores the richest collection of these jewelry. The treasures of the museum also include the cross of Queen Tamara and the famous Anchian icon. A real repository of objects of Caucasian culture is State Museum of Georgia. Silk Museum will also attract the attention of anyone who knows how to appreciate beauty.

People in Tbilisi love theater. Musical productions of Tbilisi troupes are extremely popular all over the world.

You can go with children to aquapark or visit the children's Mziuri town, where the frozen heroes of Nodar Dumbadze’s works live.

Night clubs ( Beatles Club, Roxana, City Club etc.) and bars that are open until the last customer leaves will captivate lovers of nightlife.

Purchases

In almost all large stores, hotels and restaurants in Tbilisi you can pay by credit card.

There are few supermarkets in the old part of the city, but in different corners of the narrow winding streets there are cute shops where they sell bread, cheese, herbs, wine by the glass and much more.

When leaving the city, do not forget about the need to stock up on all kinds of Georgian gifts for yourself and your loved ones. Cloisonné enamel jewelry can be bought on Rustaveli Ave., as well as in specialized stores ( Makhalaki, Presents and Souvenirs), in hotel lobbies Marriott And Radisson, and at the open market, where you can bargain. Real Georgian wine can be purchased in stores Benjamin's And Vinoteca. For paintings and souvenirs you should go to Dry Bridge. The best spices, Georgian cheese, churchkhela and sauces are sold on " Deserter» bazaar.

Transport

You can travel around Tbilisi by bus, minibus, metro and taxi.

Payment for buses, minibuses and metro is done using a special card - Metromani. You can pay in cash on buses and minibuses; the cost for one trip on any type of transport does not exceed $0.5.

The metro operates from 6 am to midnight.

Taxi fares should be agreed upon before the start of the trip.

Airplanes from leading cities in the world arrive at Tbilisi airport.

Connection

Many hotels, restaurants and almost all hostels offer free Wi-Fi. There are a number of Internet cafes on Rustaveli Avenue. You can also purchase a card from one of three mobile operators (Geocell, Beeline and Magti) operating in Georgia and use wireless Internet service costing from $12 to $18 per 1 GB of traffic.

You can call any country in the world from Tbilisi from pay phones that work using cards, as well as from post offices.

Safety

If you have any questions or difficulties, you must contact a patrol police officer. The officer will politely and competently resolve the problem.

When traveling with your own vehicle, you must strictly follow the rules traffic and city parking rules, you should not travel in dark time days. The city maintains strict control over maintaining order on the roads and streets; violators are subject to heavy fines.

Business climate

Convenient conditions for doing business in Georgia lead to an increase in investment receipts in the country and, in particular, in the development of the capital’s economy. For example, the company Rezid Holding GMBH from Austria invested in the construction of a multifunctional complex, which will consist of two skyscrapers that will house beauty salons, cafes, spa and fitness centers, swimming pools, etc.

Business in Tbilisi, as throughout Georgia, is subject to the following taxes: profit tax (15%), personal income tax (25%), VAT (18%), property tax (tax rate is determined by local governments) and land tax (from 0.2 to 0.3 $ per 1 m2). Customs duties, depending on the category of goods, are 0%, 5% and 12% of the value of the goods.

Real estate

Today, the Tbilisi real estate market is experiencing a real boom. Construction of a new quarter of the capital, “New Tbilisi,” begins, which will include five zones: residential, commercial, recreational, administrative and diplomatic.

The conditions for purchasing real estate for foreigners have been simplified as much as possible in order to stimulate the influx of foreign capital into the country.

The price of housing in Tbilisi ranges from $900 to $2,000 per 1 m2.

Tbilisi is a wonderful, hospitable city that can give everyone the most vivid impressions. The best mode of transportation here is hiking. Only in this way, calmly and slowly, can you feel the color and originality of the city. To travel long distances, choose a taxi: in the person of the taxi driver you will get both a driver and an excellent guide who will advise which wine to buy, where is the best place to dine and from which point the view of the city is the most beautiful.

Almost all signs in Tbilisi are written in Georgian, therefore, in order to feel more comfortable in the city, you can learn the Georgian alphabet or at least make yourself a cheat sheet, and, of course, always remember that in a difficult situation you can ask passers-by and employees for help police.

In small shops and markets it is not possible to pay by bank card, so it is always worth keeping some money in cash in not very large denominations.

Tbilisi is the capital of Georgia, located in the heart of this mountainous country. Until 1936, this city was called Tiflis: under this name it can be found in literary works of that period.

Territory of Tbilisi

The total area occupied by the city is about 350 square kilometers. It, in turn, is divided into six districts: Old Tbilisi, where the main city attractions are located, including areas with characteristic medieval buildings, as well as the areas of Vake-Saburtalo, Abanotubani, Isani-Samgori, Didube-Chugureti, Gldani-Nadzaladevi and Didgori.

From a geographical point of view, the city is located in the Tbilisi Basin of the same name - an elongated depression in a mountain range, 7 kilometers wide and 21 kilometers long. The physical boundaries of the basin are formed by the Trialeti ridge, the Saguram ridge and the Iori Highlands. The formation of this basin is largely due to the flow of the Kura River, which passes through the city.

Despite the fact that the city lies in a natural depression, its altitude above sea level is still significant: in different areas of Tbilisi it ranges from 380 to almost 800 meters above sea level. The nature of the area in which the city is located determines its high seismic activity, and the absence of large bodies of water in the immediate vicinity of Tbilisi results in a dry subtropical climate.

Population of Tbilisi

The total population of the city today is quite significant - it is more than 1.1 million people. Moreover, more than 80% of the population, in terms of ethnicity, is of Georgian nationality. The second largest ethnic group living within the city are Armenians: their share exceeds 7% of the city's total population. The share of the Russian population in Tbilisi is about 3%.

During the years of the Soviet Union, the share of the population belonging to the ethnic Russian group in the city was significantly higher: it reached its maximum value, about 18%, in the 1960s thanks to the industrialization program, as part of which a large number of qualified specialists moved to the city. However, subsequently this source of replenishment of the Russian population group dried up, and it began to gradually decrease. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, a significant part of the Russian population left Tbilisi, reducing the share of this category in its total population to 3%.

Capital of Georgia. The name Tbilisi was first mentioned in the 4th century; its appearance is associated with the presence of warm sulfur springs in the city (Georgian Tbili is warm). The ancient form of the name Tpilisi, from which the names of the city adopted by other peoples are derived... Geographical encyclopedia

Tbilisi- Tbilisi. Kura River and Metekhi Cathedral (founded in 1278). TBILISI (until 1936 Tiflis), capital of Georgia, on the Kura River. 1283 thousand inhabitants. Railway junction. Metropolitan (1966). Mechanical engineering (machine tools, electric locomotives, instruments, agricultural... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Capital of the Georgian SSR. Known since the 4th century, the capital of Georgia since the 12th century. Stretched in a narrow strip for almost 30 km in the river valley. Kura and on the adjacent slopes of the mountains. In the southeastern part of Tbilisi there is its ancient core, the Old Town with narrow streets,... ... Art encyclopedia

- (until 1936 Tiflis), the capital of Georgia, on the Kura River. 1283 thousand inhabitants. Railway junction. Metropolitan (1966). Mechanical engineering (machine tools, electric locomotives, instruments, agricultural machines, electrical equipment, etc.), light (textile,... ... Modern encyclopedia

- (until 1936 in Russian transcription Tiflis) the capital of Georgia, on the river. Kura. Railway junction. 1279 thousand inhabitants (1991; including settlements subordinate to the city administration, 1283 thousand inhabitants). Mechanical engineering (production of machine tools,... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Tiflis Dictionary of Russian synonyms. Tbilisi noun, number of synonyms: 3 city (2765) capital ... Synonym dictionary

- (until 1936 in Russian transcription Tiflis) the capital of the Georgian SSR. A large industrial, scientific and cultural central transport hub. Located in the Tbilisi basin, along both banks of the river. Chickens, at an altitude of 406,522 m. Average... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

TBILISI- GEORGIA Tbilisi (until 1936 in Russian transcription Tiflis), the capital of Georgia, is located in the valley of the Kura River in the Caucasus Mountains. The city's population is 1,353,000 inhabitants. Convenient location of the city on one of the mountain routes connecting the Black and Caspian... ... Cities and countries

- (until 1936 Tiflis) city, capital of Gruz. SSR, one of the largest industrial, cultural and scientific. centers of the USSR, located in the valley of the river. Chickens. Railway junction, airport, beginning military point cargo. roads. As of 1 Jan. 1972 927 t. (in 1897 160.6 tons, in 1926 294 tons... Soviet historical encyclopedia

- (until 1936 Tiflis) capital of Georgia. USSR, industrial and cultural center. 1066 thousand inhabitants (as of Jan. 1979). T. is Ch. city ​​of Georgia from 5th to 6th centuries. Information about music. T.'s life was preserved in ancient chronicles and literature. monuments of ancient centuries. WITH… … Music Encyclopedia

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• Tbilisi is the capital of the Georgian SSR. Tbilisi is the capital of Georgia. One of ancient cities world, one of the largest industrial, cultural and scientific centers of the Soviet Union. Founded in the second half of the 5th century. Its name...
• Tbilisi. Guide, Georgy Khutsishvili. Georgians say: “When a guest comes to the house, it is the sunrise. When he leaves the house, it is the sunset for the owner.” Let's hope the sun never sets on the inhabitants of this ancient...