Vulcan: a famous planet that never existed (8 photos). The most powerful volcanoes on the planet Active volcanoes on our planet

Planets and satellites of planets with extinct and active volcanic activity: Io, Earth, Mars, Moon, Venus, Mercury

Planets with active volcanic activity

Although there are traces of volcanic activity and volcanic rocks on all the “terrestrial-type” planets included in the composition (and on many satellites of the gas giant planets), active volcanism is currently observed only in two of its celestial bodies - our planet Earth and the satellite of Jupiter - And about.

Volcanoes of planet Earth

Volcanic processes occurring on Earth are quite well studied and described by many researchers. In total, over 800 active volcanoes are known on the surface of the Earth, two-thirds of them are concentrated on the shores and islands of the Pacific Ocean. It has also been established on Earth great amount extinct volcanoes. At the bottom of the Pacific Ocean alone, there are currently about 1,000 mountains of volcanic origin more than 1 km high. It will not be wrong to say that almost all, or almost all, seamounts are volcanoes.

The largest volcanoes on Earth are:

• Kilimanjaro (5895 m) in Africa
• Cotopaxi (5897 m) in South America
• Misti (5821 m) in South America
• Orizaba (5700 m) in Mexico
• Popocatepetl (5452 m) in Mexico
• Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4835 m) in Kamchatka
• Mauna Kea (4205 m) in the Hawaiian Islands

The annual “productivity” of all active volcanoes on Earth is 3-6 billion tons of erupted matter. This means that from the depths of the Earth a huge amount of molten material with a temperature of over 1000 ° C comes to the surface every year: ash, slag, volcanic bombs, erupted lava flows, etc.

Thus, volcanism is a very important process in the formation of the outer shell of the Earth.

Volcanoes of Jupiter's moon Io

The second body of the solar system on which modern active volcanic activity has been reliably established is the closest satellite of Jupiter - And about.

Its diameter is 3640 km, which is approximately 150 km larger than the diameter of the Moon. The surface of this moon is marked with dark craters, around which lava flows are usually visible. A number of images obtained from automatic space stations revealed clear traces of active volcanism. Pale greenish-white clouds of volcanic emissions extended to altitudes of 100-280 km. The emission speed reached 1 km/s. The caldera of one of the volcanoes is a ring structure with a diameter of about 300 km.

Even the simplest analysis of images from the Voyager 1 spacecraft made it possible to detect seven active volcanoes on the surface of Io, which erupted repeatedly during the four days when they were in the field of view of the station’s television cameras. Four months later, during the flight of another station, at least six of the previously discovered volcanoes continued their active volcanic activity.

Volcanic eruption on Io, a satellite of Jupiter.

Volcanic eruptions on Io are explosive in nature. Similar volcanic activity on Earth occurs with the active participation of water vapor. Volcanic explosions during volcanic eruptions on Io are apparently caused by the presence of sulfur dioxide. Scientists believe that Io's interior is almost completely molten due to Jupiter's very active tidal influence, and Io's surface is covered with a layer of sulfur several kilometers thick.

The interaction of the hot interior with the surface layer of sulfur led to the formation of an atmosphere, ionosphere, and the formation of a torus ring consisting of charged particles along the orbit. Its interaction with Jupiter's magnetosphere results in grandiose "auroras."

The first evidence of modern extraterrestrial volcanism suggests that Io is celestial body, volcanically much more active than the Earth. Preliminary estimates by scientists studying the intensity of volcanic activity on Io indicate that the surface of this satellite is transforming at a rate of 1 mm per year. This figure is quite impressive on a geological time scale. Constant renewal of the surface occurs as a result of lava outpourings and ejections of material from volcanic vents.

Planets with ceased volcanic activity

Volcanoes on the Moon

As a result of studying numerous photographs of the Moon and direct human study of its surface and soil composition, it was concluded that the Ocean of Storms is composed of ancient volcanic rocks of basic composition -.

Volcanic activity on the Moon ceased about 3 billion years ago. However, there are facts that are sometimes interpreted by individual researchers as signs of modern volcanic activity.

Such “moon holes” are considered traces of lava flows of the past - the lava hardened unevenly, leaving a void underneath. Over time, the dome collapsed, forming a cave.

The relief of the lunar seas and the Ocean of Storms is characterized by the same forms as in the volcanic regions of the Earth. These are lava flows and covers, limiting them with winding ledges, cracks - rillies, volcanic domes. Shafts and ridges are widely developed here, long (10-30 km) and also winding. Their origin is not entirely clear. It is assumed that these may be dykes- igneous rocks frozen in cracks, forming vertical or steeply dipping walls, or projections of the foundation, surrounded by lava.

Radiological determinations show that the age of lunar basalts is measured in the interval of 4-3 billion years.

Volcanoes on Mercury

There is every reason to assume that volcanic rocks are widespread on the surface. Analogues of the lunar seas stand out here, primarily the huge Kaloris depression (Sea of ​​Heat). Its surface is predominantly smooth, but there are curved ledges, reminiscent of the frontal boundaries of lava flows on the Moon.

Unlike the Moon, where the height of the ledges is only tens of meters, on Mercury it reaches 200-500 m. The reason for these differences can be explained by the more viscous composition of Mercury's lavas. It is possible that this is due to the much greater gravity on the surface (more than 2 times) than that of the Moon. The high average density of the planet's rocks gives grounds for assumptions that the sea basins of Mercury may be filled with lavas similar in composition to mantle material.

The Rachmaninoff Basin on Mercury is evidence of the planet's relatively recent volcanism. The flat bottom of this crater was formed from solidified lava.

The age of volcanism on Mercury can be judged by the degree of saturation of its surface with craters. It is assumed that it is close to the time of formation of lunar basalts.

Despite the widespread development of volcanic rocks on the surface of Mercury, volcanic apparatuses of the central type were unknown until recently. Only a thorough analysis of space images made it possible to discover about one and a half dozen objects similar to shield volcanoes and domes. Their heights and diameters are insignificant.

The largest of them is located in the center of the hilly volcanic plain of Odina, located between the Cordillera of the Sultry Mountains (in the west) and the Schiaparelli range (in the east) and has a diameter of 7 km and a height of about 1.5 km.

Every schoolchild knows that Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun in our solar system. However, for several decades in the 19th century, many of the world's leading scientists had good reason to believe that a planet, dubbed Vulcan, was located somewhere within the orbit of Mercury. A renowned French mathematician first proposed the existence of this phantom planet in 1859, and it remained one of the most wanted celestial objects until Albert Einstein's theory of relativity finally debunked the mystery in 1915.

In 1859, French scientist Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier began working on one of the most puzzling problems in astronomy: the orbit of Mercury. For years, astronomers have noted that this small planet in the solar system appears to follow its own course as it orbits the sun. In particular, its perihelion—the point when the planet is closest to the Sun—shifts slightly with each orbit. According to Sir Isaac Newton's law of gravity, this discrepancy can easily be explained by the presence of other celestial objects. However, even after Le Verrier calculated the gravitational pull of Venus, Earth, Mars and Jupiter, his predictions of Mercury's orbit were always slightly inaccurate. The planet never ended up where it was supposed to be.

Le Verrier hypothesis

After Le Verrier carefully checked and re-did his calculations, he proposed a novel hypothesis: some other object, unknown and unseen, was exerting a gravitational pull on Mercury's orbit. This planet, or a group of small planets circling in close proximity from the orbit of Mercury, is capable of making an anomalous impact, which is felt by the last planet. Le Verrier suggested that the glare of the sun prevented the identification of this object in the past. However, he argued that it could be easily detected under the right conditions.

Dear Astronomer

The scientific community welcomed Le Verrier's theory, and for good reason, since he already had experience searching for new planets. Thirteen years earlier, he had made a similar prediction in an attempt to explain the gravitational fluctuations in the orbit of the planet Uranus. As astronomers scanned the sky, they discovered the previously unknown planet Neptune. The discovery catapulted Le Verrier to international scientific fame and secured admission to the French Legion of Honor and the post of head of the Paris Observatory. His intelligence has been described as "almost superhuman".

"Discovery" of a new planet

Armed with a fresh prediction from the discoverer of Neptune, astronomers immediately began the hunt for a new planet. But it turned out that the breakthrough had occurred several months earlier, and was made by an amateur named Edmond Modest Lecarbol. A physician by profession, Lekarbol was also a keen stargazer who built his own makeshift observatory in the countryside. Looking through his telescope on March 26, 1859, he saw a small black dot—possibly a planet—drift across the surface of the Sun. At that time, the doctor did not tell anyone about his discovery, but after reading notes about the hypothetical planet, Le Verrier sent him a letter with a full report.

After receiving the letter, Le Verrier went to meet Lecarbol to study his equipment and notes. After this meeting, he was even more convinced that there was another planet closer to the Sun than Mercury. Le Verrier announced the discovery in early 1860. Obeying the tradition of naming planets by names mythical gods, he gave her the name Vulcan, in honor of the Roman god of blacksmithing.

Failed observation attempts

The discovery of Vulcan was a great step forward for science. Lecarbol was accepted into the Legion of Honor, and Le Verrier was once again called a genius. There was just one problem: the new planet was frustratingly difficult to detect. Scattered information about the observation of Vulcan poured in from all over the globe, but most of it was from amateur astronomers. Leverrier still required independent confirmation from a respected professional. Hoping to receive this confirmation, Le Verrier's supporters estimated that the planet would be visible in late March or early April 1860. The astronomers adjusted their telescopes, but when the appointed time arrived, Vulcan did not appear. Many soon began to wonder if this planet actually existed.

Hunt for Vulcan

Over the next few years, Vulcan became the subject of an international hunt. During the 1860s, many observations were made, but for every astronomer who claimed to have seen the planet, there were many more who tried and never found anything. The ranks of skeptics continued to grow until 1871, when a team of English astronomers failed to discover the planet for the third year in a row. The question of Vulcan has remained open since 1859, as author Thomas Levenson wrote in his book The Hunt for Vulcan. Random observations and seemingly consistent calculations fueled this interest.

In 1876, Vulcan's fate seemed to be sealed. A trained astronomer reported that he had observed the transit of a planet near the Sun, and the newspapers received a new flurry of reports from amateurs. The enthusiasm was so great that the New York Times even published an article declaring that "Vulcan's existence can no longer be denied or ignored." According to the article, the Earth should henceforth be named the fourth planet from the Sun, and children in public schools who learn the old-fashioned order of the planets should be sure to memorize Vulcan and its place in the solar system.

Fall from Olympus

Le Verrier died in 1877, but the most eventful period in Vulcan's life was yet to come. Only a year later, on July 29, 1878, the complete solar eclipse, which could be observed in Russia and North America. Such an event would make it very convenient for observing Vulcan, and so legions of astronomers set up their telescopes and cameras in hopes of seeing it. Most gave up quickly, but two respected astronomers, James Craig Watson and Lewis Swift, claimed to have spotted the planet. Newspapers again began to trumpet the existence of Vulcan, but this triumph was short-lived. Critics said that scientists were actually seeing two well-known stars, and much of the scientific community dismissed these observations as erroneous.

After the observations of Watson and Swift were criticized, the scientific community's faith in Vulcan virtually disappeared. This planet became the astronomy equivalent of the El Dorado myth, which most scientists abandoned, although some still continued to search for it. However, if Vulcan doesn't exist, scientists have once again begun to wonder what is causing Mercury's orbit to shift.

Resolving issues

The final answer to this question finally emerged in 1915, when Einstein dropped the scientific bombshell that was his general theory of relativity. Unlike Newton's theories of gravity, which could explain Mercury's orbit only by the existence of an unknown planet, general relativity states that a supermassive object - in this case the Sun - is capable of bending space and time and changing the path of light. Shortly before publishing his theory, Einstein applied it to Mercury and found that it perfectly explained the discrepancy in its orbit. Thus, Mercury is not attracted by any object, and it is a matter of moving through distorted time space.

As a result of Einstein's breakthrough, Vulcan was forever thrown from the astronomical sky. Astronomers erased the planet from their charts and attributed news of past sightings to the appearance of unidentified stars or sunspots. The volcano at the same time became one of the most famous dead ends in scientific history, but his “death” did not put an end to the hunt for new worlds within solar system. In 1930, after a long search, the dwarf planet Pluto was discovered. Meanwhile in last years Scientists have found ample evidence that a hypothetical "planet nine" could be located somewhere on the outer edge of the solar system.

Volcanoes are geological formations on the surface earth's crust where magma comes to the surface, forming lava, volcanic gases, rocks and pyroclastic flows. The word “Vulcan” comes from the name of the ancient Roman god of fire, Vulcan. There are several thousand volcanoes on earth, more than 500 of which are active. In our list we will talk about the 11 largest and high volcanoes planets.

11

Tajumulco is a volcano in western Guatemala. It has an altitude of 4220 meters, is part of the burrow system of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and highest point Guatemala and Central America. The volcano cone has two peaks; the eastern cone is ancient with a crater with a diameter of about 70 meters, the western one is young. There are oak and pine forests on the slopes, and xerophytic mountain meadows in the upper part. There is several evidence of its eruptions in historical times, but none of them are reliably confirmed.

10

The volcano in Washington state, 4392 meters high, is located 88 kilometers from Seattle in Pierce County. Rainier is a dormant stratovolcano, but there is evidence of volcanic activity from 1820 to 1894. Today, according to the USGS, in the event of a strong eruption, about 150 thousand people could be in danger. Rainier is one of the most glacially rich mountains in the world, on the slopes of which are the sources of many rivers. Up to a height of 2500 meters the volcano is covered with coniferous forests, above - alpine meadows, above 2800 meters - glaciers and eternal snow. On the peaks there are 40 glaciers with an area of ​​87 km², the largest of which is Emmons - 14 km². The volcano and surrounding area are protected and have the status of Mount Rainier National Park.

9

Klyuchevskaya Sopka is an active volcano in eastern Kamchatka, about 7,000 years old. It has a height of 4850 meters, a crater diameter of 1250 meters and a crater depth of 340 meters. It is the highest active volcano on the Eurasian continent. It is a regular cone with 70 side cones, domes and craters. Despite the high altitude of the volcano, there is no snow or glaciers on it. This is caused by active volcanic activity. Klyuchevskoy volcano was formed only due to summit eruptions. Over 270 years, more than 50 strong eruptions occurred. During the 2004-2005 eruption, the ash column reached a record height of 8,000 m.

8

It is the highest active volcano of the Andean volcanic belt at 40 km north of the city Manizales. Nevado del Ruiz is located in the territory National Park Los Nevados is part of the Ruiz Tolima massif and includes a group of five snow-capped volcanoes: Tolima, Santa Isabel, Quindia and Machin. The Cordillera is located at the intersection of four deep faults that are still partially active. The top of the volcano is covered by large glaciers, but they are rapidly retreating thanks to global warming. This volcano has been active for about 2 million years. Its relatively minor eruption in 1985, after a 150-year period of inactivity, almost completely destroyed and cut off the town of Armero from the outside world and led to the death of 23 thousand of its inhabitants.

7

Seventh place in the list of the largest volcanoes in the world was taken by this active stratovolcano in South America. Sangay is located in Ecuador, on the eastern slope of the Andes and has three craters. The height above sea level is 5230 meters. A young cone rises above the ancient volcano, cut by deep gorges. Almost continuously since 1728, the volcano emitted steam and ash, covering the surrounding area. The volcano is believed to have formed about 14,000 years ago. The last eruption was in 2007. At the top there is eternal snow.

6

Popocatepetl is an active volcano and the second highest mountain in Mexico, with an altitude of 5426 meters. The name comes from two words in the Nahuatl language: popo - “smoking” and tepetl - “hill”. There are three state capitals around the volcano - Puebla, Tlaxcala and Mexico City, with general population more than 20 million people. The volcano has a perfect conical shape, a very deep oval crater, with almost vertical walls. Most eruptions over the past 600 years have been relatively weak. In September 2006, the volcano resumed activity, with periodic ash emissions over the volcano's crater.

5

Peak Orizaba is the highest mountain in Mexico and the third highest in North America. Its height is 5636 meters. Difficult terrain, significant altitude above sea level, strong winds - all this caused the presence of several climatic zones on the volcano. If tropical vegetation can be observed at the foot of the eastern side of the volcano, then at more high levels the vegetation is more similar to alpine. And to the south and southeast lie large fields small cinder cones and maars - funnel-shaped depressions that appeared during the explosion of gases, up to 300–400 m deep and exceeding 3 km in diameter. Although Orizaba has fallen asleep since the last volcanic eruption occurred in 1687, he can suddenly awaken and show his hot temper.

4

A volcano in South America in southern Peru, whose height is 5822 meters, and the top is covered with snow only in winter. 17 km to the west is Peru's second largest city, Arequipa, with a population of about 1 million people. The volcano has three concentric craters. Fumarole activity can be observed in the inner crater. Geological studies indicate that El Misti has had 5 weak eruptions over the past hundred years. In the 15th century, a strong volcanic eruption forced the residents of the city of Arequipa to flee. The last weak eruption was recorded in 1985.

3

The third largest volcano on the planet is the Cotopaxi Volcano. This volcano is located in Ecuador and is the highest active volcano in the country, its height is 5911 meters. The area at the base is 16 km by 19 km, and the top, starting at an altitude of 5200 meters, is covered with an ice cap. The icy crater of the volcano reaches a diameter of about 800 meters, and in the lower part there is peculiar vegetation - mountain meadows and pine forests with mosses and lichens. Since 1738, Cotopaxi has erupted about 50 times.

2

This dormant volcano It is part of the Cordillera Oxidetal range and the highest point in Ecuador. Its height is 6267 meters, and it was formed about 60 million years BC. The top of the volcano is completely covered with ice, in some places falling to a height of 4600 m. Melt water from the mountain is the main water resource for residents of the provinces of Bolivar and Chimborazo. Today, the top of this volcano is the most distant point on its surface from the center of the Earth. The last volcanic eruption occurred around 550 AD.

1

The largest volcano on the planet is an active volcano in the Western Cordillera of the Andes, on the border of Chile and Argentina - Llullaillaco. The height of this giant is 6739 meters. At the top there is eternal glaciation. Located in one of the driest places in the world - the Atacama Desert, the snow line on the western slope exceeds 6.5 thousand meters. Llullaillaco is also a famous archaeological site - in 1999, the mummified bodies of three Inca children, believed to have been sacrificed 500 years ago, were discovered on its summit.

Volcanic eruptions are dangerous primarily due to their direct impact - the release of tons of burning lava, under which entire cities can perish. But, in addition to this, side factors such as the suffocating effects of volcanic gases, the threat of tsunamis, isolation from sunlight, distortion of the terrain and local climate changes also pose a danger.

Merapi, Indonesia

Merapi is one of the most large volcanoes on the islands of Indonesia. It is also one of the most active: large eruptions occur once every seven to eight years, and small ones - once every two years. At the same time, smoke appears from the top of the volcano almost every day, not allowing local residents to forget about the threat. Merapi is also famous for the fact that in 1006 the entire medieval Javanese-Indian state of Mataram was seriously damaged by his activities. The volcano is especially dangerous because it is located near the large Indonesian city of Yogyakarta, which is home to about 400 thousand people.

Sakurajima, Japan

Sakurajima has been in constant volcanic activity since 1955, with its last eruption occurring in early 2009. Until 1914, the volcano was located on a separate island of the same name, but frozen lava flows connected the island with the Osumi Peninsula. Residents of the city of Kagoshima are already accustomed to the restless behavior of the volcano and are constantly ready to take refuge in shelters.

Aso Volcano, Japan

The last time volcanic activity was recorded at the volcano was quite recently, in 2011. Then the ash cloud spread over an area of ​​more than 100 km. From that time to the present, about 2,500 tremors have been recorded, which indicates the activity of the volcano and its readiness to erupt. Despite the immediate danger, about 50 thousand people live in the immediate vicinity, and the crater is a popular tourist attraction for daredevils. In winter, the slopes are covered with snow and people go skiing and sledding in the valley.

Popocatepetl, Mexico

One of the largest volcanoes in Mexico is located literally fifty kilometers from. This is a city with a population of 20 million people who are in constant readiness to evacuate. In addition to Mexico City, the following are located in the neighborhood: big cities, like Puebla and Tlaxcala de Xicotencatl. Popocatepetl also gives them a reason to be nervous: emissions of gas, sulfur, dust and stones occur literally every month. In recent decades, the volcano has erupted in 2000, 2005 and 2012. Many climbers strive to climb to its peak. Popocatepetl is famous for the fact that in 1955 it was conquered by Ernesto Che Guevara.

Etna, Italy

This Sicilian volcano is interesting because it has not only one main wide crater, but also many small craters on the slopes. Etna is constantly active, with small eruptions occurring every few months. This does not prevent the Sicilians from densely populating the slopes of the volcano, since the presence of minerals and trace elements makes the soil very fertile. The last major eruption was in May 2011, and minor emissions of ash and dust occurred in April 2013. By the way, Etna is the largest volcano in the world: it is two and a half times larger than Vesuvius.

Vesuvius, Italy

Vesuvius is one of Italy's three active volcanoes, along with Mount Etna and Stromboli. They are even jokingly called the “hot Italian family.” In 79, the eruption of Vesuvius destroyed the city of Pompeii and all its inhabitants, who were buried under layers of lava, pumice and mud. One of the last major eruptions, in 1944, killed about 60 people and almost completely destroyed the nearby towns of San Sebastiano and Massa. According to scientists, Vesuvius destroyed nearby cities about 80 times! By the way, this volcano has set many records. Firstly, this is the only active volcano on the mainland, secondly, it is the most studied and predictable, and thirdly, the territory of the volcano is a nature reserve and a national park where excursions are held. You can only go up on foot, since the lift and funicular have not yet been restored.

Colima, Mexico

The volcanic mountain consists of two peaks: the already extinct Nevado de Colima, which most time covered with snow, and the active Colima volcano. Colima is particularly active: it has erupted more than 40 times since 1576. A strong eruption occurred in the summer of 2005, when authorities had to evacuate people from nearby villages. Then a column of ash was thrown to a height of about 5 km, spreading a cloud of smoke and dust behind it. Now the volcano is fraught with danger not only for local residents, but also for the whole country.

Mauna Loa, Hawaii, USA

Scientists have been monitoring the volcano since 1912 - there is a volcanological station on its slopes, as well as solar and atmospheric observatories. The height of the volcano reaches 4169 m. The last strong eruption of Mauna Loa destroyed several villages in 1950. Until 2002, the seismic activity of the volcano was low, until an increase was recorded, which indicates the possibility of eruptions in the near future.

Galeras, Colombia

The Galeras volcano is very powerful: its diameter at the base exceeds 20 km, and the width of the crater is about 320 m. The volcano is very dangerous - every few years, due to its activity, the population of the nearby town of Pasto has to be evacuated. The last such evacuation took place in 2010, when about 9 thousand people found themselves in shelters due to the threat of a strong eruption. Thus, the restless Galeras keeps local residents in constant suspense.

Nyiragongo, Republic of Congo

The Nyiragongo volcano is considered the most dangerous in all: it accounts for about half of all cases of volcanic activity recorded on the continent. Since 1882, there have been 34 eruptions. Lava of Nyiragongo has a special chemical composition, so it is unusually liquid and flowing. The speed of erupted lava can reach 100 km/h. In the main crater of the volcano there is a lava lake, the temperature of which heats up to 982 Cº, and the bursts reach a height of 7 to 30 m. The last largest eruption occurred in 2002, then 147 people died, 14 thousand buildings were destroyed, and 350 thousand people left homeless.

It is worth noting that scientists have been studying the activity of volcanoes for many years and modern technology recognizes the beginning of their seismic activity. Many volcanoes have webcams that allow you to monitor what is happening in real time. People living nearby are already accustomed to this behavior of volcanoes and know what to do when an eruption begins, and services emergency situations have the means to evacuate local residents. So every year the likelihood of casualties from volcanic eruptions becomes less and less.