Modern Aztecs. Where did the ancient Aztecs live? When did the Aztecs appear

Aztec capital.

Legends and traditions

The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua due to its common language.

According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes are known for sure - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from.

Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(ast. nahuatlaca, "Nahuatl speakers", from the word "tlaca" meaning "person"). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli (Ast. Huitzilopochtli), which means “hummingbird of the left side,” “left-handed hummingbird.” There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that a new house should be founded in such a place. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

By the time the Aztecs arrived, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided between coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme authority of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tlatelolco (Tlaltelolco). Tenochtitlan (the city of Tenocha) was founded in. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.

According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other nations, - for the most part from the ancient Toltecs (whom they may have confused with more ancient civilization Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of the entire culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui-Ollin (Ast. Nahui-Ollin), the fifth era, the fifth sun or fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds” (in Russian it is usually translated “all in buboes”; the smallest and most humble god, suffering from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (literally “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca (ast. Tezcatlipoca) and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, so he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.

Aztec Empire

Evolution of Aztec territorial possessions

The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was quite ethnically diverse; it was more of a unified system of tribute collection than a unified system of government. In this context, Arnold Toynbee draws an analogy with the Assyrian Empire.

Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was carried out even with enemy cities. The only people who defeated the Aztecs - the Purépecha (Ast. purépecha) - were the main manufacturer of copper axes.

The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities. There were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica. Vehicle, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat and even recover in special places equipped for this purpose, located every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers constantly plied along these routes ( Painani), keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec Empire led to one of the largest population explosions: the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people.

The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec Emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of Emperor Huey Tlahtoani (Ast. Huey Tlahtoani) translates roughly as “Great Orator”: Tlatocque(Ast. tlatoque, “speakers”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuitzotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial title, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.

By the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed in the lands of modern Guatemala, Peru, Colombia and Venezuela. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Aztec society

Class structure

Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: masehualli(ast. macehualli, people), or peasantry, and pilly(ast. pilli), or to know. Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took prisoners in war could become permanent warriors; and over time, military glory and the spoils of war made them pillies. Once an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekihua(ast. tequiua), and he could achieve the rank of Eagle or Jaguar; he could later gain rank tlacateccatl(ast. tlacateccatl) or tlacochcalcatl(ast. tlacochcalcatl). To become tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners. When a youth came of age, he did not cut his hair until he had captured his first captive; sometimes two or three young men united for this purpose, then they were called yak(ast. iyac). If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became masehualli(ast. macehualli); it was considered a disgrace to be a warrior with long hair, signifying the absence of prisoners; however, there were also those who preferred to be macehualli.

The rich spoils of war led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of traditional Aztec society: post office(ast. pochtecatl), or traders. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; The Pochteka were also good spies. The warriors despised them, but one way or another they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.

In the later years of the empire the concept masehualli has changed. Eduardo Noguera estimated that only 20% of the population was engaged in agriculture and food production. A management system called chinampa(ast. chinampa), was very effective, it could provide food for about 190,000 inhabitants. Also, a significant amount of food was obtained in the form of tribute and through trade. The Aztecs were not only conquerors, but also skilled artisans and enterprising traders. Later, most of the Macehualli devoted themselves to arts and crafts, and their work was an important source of income for the city.

Excavations of some Aztec cities show that most luxury goods were produced in Tenochtitlan. More research is needed to establish whether this is true for other areas; but if trade was as important to the Aztec economy as it appears, this may explain the rise post office as an influential class.

Slavery

Slaves, or tlacotin, also formed an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had many similarities with the slavery of classical antiquity. Firstly, slavery was personal, not inherited, the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children with their owners, or were married to their owners.

Typically, upon the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The remaining slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

Another very amazing method of freeing a slave was described by Manuel Orozco y Berra (Spanish. Manuel Orozco y Berra): if in the market a slave could escape the close observation of his master, run outside the walls of the market and step in human excrement, he could present his case to the judges, who would set him free. The former slave was then washed, given new clothes (to prevent him or her from wearing clothes that belonged to the former master), and declared free. And since, in complete contrast to the practices in the European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave.

Orozco y Berra also writes that a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities classified the slave as disobedient. (Disobedience was defined by laziness, attempts to escape, and bad behavior). Unruly slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. Shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their design made escape in crowds or narrow passages more difficult.

When purchasing a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times the slave had been resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold for sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.

However, if a chained slave sought representation in a royal palace or temple, he received his freedom.

In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unlucky gamblers and old “auini” (Ast. ahuini) - courtesans or prostitutes.

It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed; Animal sacrifices were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things: they were broken in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced; during special ceremonies, people inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting; wore special spikes that constantly wounded the body. Blood was central to Mesoamerican cultures. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)

All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human sacrifice. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the top platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim’s stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim’s heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it away. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in cases of prisoners; if faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then they got rid of the body parts different ways: the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tzompantli(ast. tzompantli), and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as gifts to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of those found in the large temple complex remains.

There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It’s difficult to keep track of the measure here. Aztec chronicles describe how some 84,400 captives were sacrificed over four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the city's population of 120,000 people was able to capture, house and dispose of so many captives, especially considering the fact that Ahuitzotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of casualties could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for war propaganda purposes.

Other figures are taken from Bernal Diaz del Castillo (Spanish). Bernal Diaz del Castillo), a Spanish soldier who wrote his reports for 50 years after the conquest. When describing tzompantli, a place with the skulls of victims, he counts about 100,000 skulls. However, to accommodate such a number of skulls, the tzompantli would have to be several kilometers long instead of the described 30 meters. Modern reconstructions count between 600 and 1,200 skulls. Likewise, Díaz stated that the tzompantli of Tlaltelolco, as important as that of Tenochtitlan, contained 60,000 skulls. According to the book by William Ahrens William Arens), 300 skulls were found during excavations.

Typical reports of Aztec cannibalism:

Cortez writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.
Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards invited the Aztecs to surrender because they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs invited the Spaniards to attack, only to be captured and eaten.
In Bernardino de Sahagún's books there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened Aztec traders.
In the annals of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the victim's palms was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced with turkey.
In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as gifts to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, since it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced with turkey or simply thrown away.

Recent archaeological finds(2005) in the basements of Aztec temples show evidence of incisions indicating the removal of muscles. However, not all bodies have such cuts.

Poetry

Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in Peaceful time. Despite the upheavals of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the Conquest have reached us. For several dozen poetic texts, the names of the authors are even known, for example Nezahualcoyotl (ast. Nezahualcóyotl) and Cuacuatzin (ast. Cuacuatzin). Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator of Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions and thoughts of the Aztecs, regardless of the “official” worldview.

In the basement of the Great Temple (Spanish) Templo Mayor) was the “House of the Eagles” (see also “House of the Jaguars”), where in peacetime Aztec military leaders could drink foaming chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry. The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments (ast. teponaztli). One of the most common themes (among surviving texts) of the poems is “is life reality or a dream?” and the opportunity to meet the Creator.

The largest collection of poems was collected by Juan Bautista de Pomar. This collection was later translated into Spanish by Leon-Portilla's teacher. Juan Bautista de Pomar was the great-grandson of Nezahualcoyotl. He spoke Nahuatl, but was raised as a Christian, and wrote down his grandfather's poems in Latin characters.

The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form would hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and performances of the gods.

Modern Aztecs

Bibliography

Aztec sources

Prester Juan; Antonio Perez; fry Pedro de los Rios (glosses). Codex Telleriano-Remensis. www.kuprienko.info. - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2010. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky, V. Talakh. Archived from the original on August 22, 2011. Retrieved August 16, 2010.
Anonymous author. Codex Mendoza. . www.kuprienko.info (December 1, 2010). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2010. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky, V. Talakh. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2010.
Anonymous authors. Codex Magliabecca (XVI century). . www.kuprienko.info (August 17, 2011). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2011. Translation from Spanish - V. Talakh.. Archived from the original source on February 5, 2012. Retrieved on August 17, 2011.

Mayan springs

Talakh V. M. (ed.) Documents of Pashbolon-Maldonado (Campeche, Mexico, 17th century). (Russian) . kuprienko.info(June 26, 2012). Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved June 27, 2012.

Spanish sources

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún."Customs and Beliefs" (excerpt from the book "General History of the Affairs of New Spain"). www.kuprienko.info (April 16, 2006). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2006. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky. Archived from the original on August 27, 2011. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
"History of the Mexicans by Their Drawings" (16th century document on the religion and history of the Colua-Mexica or Aztecs.)
"A Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and the Great City of Temestitan, Mexico City" (written by Hernán Cortés's companion, Conquistador Anonymous)
Cortes, Hernan "Second Epistle to Emperor Charles V" (letter written in Segura de la Frontera, October 30, 1520)
Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de. The history of the Chichimec people, their settlement and settlement in the country of Anahuac. . www.kuprienko.info (March 22, 2010). - per. from Spanish - V. Talakh, Ukraine, Kyiv, 2010. Archived from the original on August 23, 2011. Retrieved June 29, 2010.
Juan Bautista de Pomar. Message from Texcoco. . www.kuprienko.info (May 16, 2011). - per. from Spanish - V. Talakh, Ukraine, Kyiv, 2011. Archived from the original on August 27, 2011. Retrieved May 16, 2011.

Literature

Mythological Dictionary/Ed. E. M. Meletinsky - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1991
Baglay V.E., “Aztecs. History, economics, socio-political system"
Galich, Manuel. "History of Pre-Columbian Civilizations"
Zubarev V.G.,
Kinzhalov, Rostislav on Ozone
Keram, K., “Gods, Tombs, Scientists”, “Treasures of Montezuma”, “The First American. The mystery of the Indians of the pre-Columbian era"
Kosidovsky, Zeno, “How Cortes conquered the country of the Aztecs”, “The end of the eaters of human hearts”
Kuzmishchev, Vladimir Alexandrovich on Ozone
Sodi, Demetrio, "Great Cultures of Mesoamerica" - "Aztecs"
Stingle, Miloslav. “Indians Without Tomahawks”, “Worshippers of the Stars”, “Secrets of the Indian Pyramids”
Soustelle, Jacques “AZTECS. Warlike subjects of Montezuma"
Miguel Leon-Portilla, "Nagua Philosophy"
Encyclopedia "Vanished Civilizations", "Aztecs: Empire of Blood and Majesty"
Gulyaev V.I. “In the footsteps of the conquistadors”, “Science”, 1976, - 160 p.
Aguilar-Moreno M. Aztecs: Encycl. reference book / Transl. from English - M.: Veche, 2011. - 544 p. - (Library of World History). - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-9533-4666-5

Rider Haggard - Montezuma's Daughter

Notes

Links

// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Aztecs
Background	Akolhua \| Toltec \| Chichimeca
Cities and regions	Azcapotzalco \| Coatlinchan \| Tenochtitlan \| Tlatelolco \| Texcoco
Rulers of Tenochtitlan	Tenoch (? - approx.) \| Acamapichtli (-) \| Huitzilihuitl (-) \| Chimalpopoka (-) \| Itzcoatl (-) \| Montezuma I (-) \| Axayacatl (-) \| Vise (-) \| Ahuizotl (-) \| Montezuma II (-) \| Cuitlahuac () \| Cuauhtémoc (-)
Rivals and neighbors	Cuscatlan \| Mixtec \| Otomi \| Zapotec \| Tarascan \| Tlaxcalteca \| Akolhua
Army, weapons	Army \| Weapons \| Generals \| Tactics \| Flower Wars \| Spear Thrower \| Eagle Warriors \| Jaguar Warriors
Society, family, economy	Right \| Economics \| Education \| Family \| Community \| Roads \| Irrigation \| Channels \| Trade \| Farming \| Cattle breeding \| Ceramics
Mythology and religion	Aztec Mythology \| Aztec sacrifices \| Aztlan \| Tollan Iztaccihuatl \|

Before the arrival of Europeans, in the territory of what is now Mexico, there lived many Indian peoples and tribes, one of the most interesting and mysterious was the tribe that created the most developed empire of that time (in North America) - Aztec Empire.

Aztec Civilization

Aztecs- Indian people in central Mexico. Number of over 1.5 million people. In Nahuatl, the native language of the Aztecs, the word "Aztec" literally means "one from Aztlan," a mythical place located somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term encompassing peoples related by trade, custom, religion, and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt and adopted by 19th-century Mexican scholars as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian populations. The Aztecs themselves called themselves "mexica", "tenochka" or "tlaltelolca" - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “mexica” (Ast. mexica, from which, in fact, the word Mexico comes), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Mexitli (Mexitli, Mextli), type algae growing in Lake Texcoco.

The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec Empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Texcoco) (Spanish. Texcoco), where the city of Mexico is now located.

The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua due to its common language. According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley, around Lake Texcoco, from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes is known for sure - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from. Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(“Nahuatl speakers”, from the word “tlaca” meaning “person”). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli, which means “left-handed hummingbird.” There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that a new house should be founded in such a place. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

So, in 1256, the Aztecs stopped on a rock washed by a spring and surrounded by thickets of auehuete. This was Chapultepec, then a forest. Lake Texcoco stretched out before them. By the time the Aztecs arrived, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided between coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme authority of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tenochtitlan in 1325. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.

According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples - mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they may have confused with the older civilization of Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of all culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui Ollin, the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds” (in Russian usually translated “all in buboes”; the smallest and humblest god who suffered from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (literally - “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City. Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, so he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.

The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was quite ethnically diverse; it was more of a unified system of tribute collection than a unified system of government. Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was carried out even with enemy cities. The only people to defeat the Aztecs, the Purépecha, were the main producers of copper axes. The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities.

In Mesoamerica, there were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat, and even visit the restroom every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers (Painani) constantly traveled along these routes, keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest demographic explosions - the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people and by the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed on the lands of Guatemala. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan, Europeans usually call the Aztec emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of the emperor is Huey Tlahtoani (Akt. HueyTlahtoani) roughly translated as “Great Orator”. Tlatocque (at. tlatoque- “orators”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuitzotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial one, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.

From 1397 to 1487, the empire was led by Tlacaelel ( Tlahcaé lel from Nahuatl - “brave heart”). He could become tlatoani, but chose to remain in the shadow of the jaguar's mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew tlatoani Itzcoatl and brother of Chimalpopoca and Motecuzoma Ilhuicamina, and bore the title "Cihuacoatl" (after the goddess Chihuacoatl, the equivalent of an advisor). As it is written in Ramirez's manuscript: “what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as quickly as possible.” He was a tough reformer, he created a new structure for governing the country, ordered the burning of most Aztec books, claiming that they were all lies, and rewrote the history of the Aztecs. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion, placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (perhaps exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of “flower wars” and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continued to move across the sky.

Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: the macehualli, or peasantry, and the pilli, or nobles. Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took captives in war could become permanent warriors, and over time, military glory and the spoils of war made them pilli. Once an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekihua, and he could achieve the rank of Eagle or Jaguar. Later he could gain rank tlacateccatl or tlacochcalcatl. To become tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners. When a young man came of age, he did not cut his hair until he captured his first captive. Sometimes two or three young men united for this purpose, then they were called yak. If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became masehualli. It was considered a disgrace to be a warrior with long hair, signifying the absence of prisoners, but there were also those who preferred to be macehualli.

The rich spoils of war led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of the traditional Aztec society - post office, or traders. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; the Poste were also good spies. The warriors despised them, however, one way or another, they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.

Slaves, or tlacotin, also formed an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had many similarities with the slavery of classical antiquity. Firstly, slavery was personal, not inherited, the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property, and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children with their owners, or were married to their owners. Typically, upon the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The remaining slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

An Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered man at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves. In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unlucky gamblers and old "auini" - courtesans or prostitutes. Although it was possible to drink pulque, a fermented drink with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk before reaching the age of sixty. Violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tlachtli, an Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", where the Spanish "ule" comes from. hule), meaning rubber. According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and playing it was characterized by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring located high enough without causing physical harm to oneself. A good "incentive" to play was the fact that members of the losing team were sacrificed.

Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips. The goal of the game was to throw the ball through a stone ring. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take away the audience's blankets, so victory was accompanied by running, screaming and laughter. People bet on the results of the game. The poor could stake their food, the pillis could stake their wealth, the "tekutli" ( owners) could put their concubines or even cities on the line, and those who had nothing put their freedom on the line and risked becoming slaves. The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or captain of the winning team (however, according to other sources - the captain and players of the losing team).

in Mesoamerica and South America, during the heyday of the Aztec state, sacrifices were widespread; however, the Aztecs practiced them on a special scale, sacrificing people on each of the 18 holidays of their sacred calendar. It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed. Animal sacrifices were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things - they broke them in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced; during special ceremonies, people inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting, and wore special thorns that constantly wounded the body.

Blood was central to Mesoamerican cultures. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life).

All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human sacrifice. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the top platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim’s stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim’s heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it away. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in cases of prisoners. If faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways - the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tzompantli, and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as gifts to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of the remains discovered in a large temple complex.

There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It’s difficult to keep track of the measure here. Aztec chronicles describe how some 84,400 captives were sacrificed over four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the city's population of 120,000 people was able to capture, house and dispose of so many captives, especially considering the fact that Ahuizotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of casualties could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for war propaganda purposes.

The Aztecs led the so-called « flower wars » (Spanish) guerrasfloridas) - special raids to capture captives, to perform sacrifices, which they called neshtlahualli - this was a kind of “debt payment to the gods” so that the sun could shine during the next 52-year cycle. The human soul-heart and soul-blood are necessary so that the world does not collapse - this idea underlay the practice of capturing people in subjugated lands, and the population was ordered to meet warriors with flowers in their hands (one of the reasons that gave the name “flower wars”).
It is not known whether the Aztecs performed sacrifices before they came to the Anahuac Valley, or whether they absorbed this custom as they absorbed many other customs and cultures. The sacrifices were originally dedicated to Xipe Totec, a northern Mesoamerican deity. Aztec records state that human sacrifice began during the reign of Tisoc. During the reign of Tlacaelel, human sacrifice became an integral part of Aztec culture, not only for religious but also for political reasons.

There is little information regarding Aztec cannibalism. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquest, none of which involve widespread ritual cannibalism. In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as gifts to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, since it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced with turkey or simply thrown away.

After the capture by the Spaniards, the Aztec civilization practically ceased to exist, cities and temples were destroyed, and books were burned...

On the territory of modern Mexico, which shuddered under the heavy tread of the Spanish conquerors at the beginning of the 16th century, various Indian peoples and tribes lived at certain periods of time. One of the most interesting and mysterious tribes, which created a multimillion-dollar and most developed empire of that era in North America - the Aztec Empire, was destroyed in just a few years by the ruthless Conquista, which began in 1521.

Aztec State

In 1256, strangers appeared in the Lake Texcoco basin, coming from the north and calling Aztlan their homeland, a semi-mythical country whose location has not been established for certain. That is why this tribal group was given the name “Aztec,” which meant “man from Aztlan,” although the Indians themselves called themselves “Tenochki.” For several decades, the Aztecs loyally served the ruler of the city-state Azcapotzalco, who was considered the most powerful in the region.

On a vast mountain plateau, where modern Mexico City is now located, the capital of the future mighty Aztec state was founded in 1325. . From that moment on, the Aztec leaders made several vain attempts to get rid of the humiliating and powerless position of the vassals, but the endless strife within the tribe itself did not contribute to strengthening the position of the Aztecs. Only in 1376, the new paramount leader Acamapichtli restored order and began the unification of the three tribes from the cities of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan.

After only half a century, this triple alliance gained fame as the most powerful in Central and Southern Mexico, which had no equal until the fall of the Aztec empire. At the time of the arrival of the Spanish conquerors in Mexico, Tenochtitlan surpassed in size, population and infrastructure any European city of that era. Since the capital was built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, it was possible to get to the shore from the city along three wide roads, built by the Aztecs by hand and leading in three directions (north, west, south) to the farthest corners of the empire.

Religion, culture and social system of the Aztecs

According to Spanish chronicles, inside Tenochtitlan, residents often moved on boats along the canals, much like in Venice. In the center of the capital there was a giant Great Temple, around which altars and smaller temples were concentrated. The main temple of the Aztec empire was a stepped pyramid, the top of which could be climbed by a wide double staircase.

On flat top there were two more temples, the service in which was dedicated to the two most important gods of the Aztecs - Huitzilopochtli and Tlalolku. To appease the celestials, the priests often organized sacrifice rituals, and the main role in these dark rituals it was not animals at all, but people.

This Indian people achieved impressive results in the study of astronomy and medicine; the Aztecs also had writing - a set of hieroglyphs. The way of life, as well as the course of the history of the tribe, could be clearly traced through books - codes, which were created by the Aztecs on long strips of material made from tree bark and folded into an accordion. Unfortunately, most of the codices were destroyed during the enslavement of the tribe by the Spaniards.

Aztec society was divided into two layers - class free people and slaves. The class of free people included noble Indians (pilli) and peasants (masehualli), while slaves most often were prisoners of war, debtors or lawbreakers expelled from the community. The common people settled in groups (calpulli) at a distance from the Great Temple; for each clan a separate residential area was built from small one-story mud huts or adobe buildings.

The homes of the nobility, as usual, amazed with their luxury: in huge houses ground and hanging gardens, there were pools with fish. But most amazing place there was a palace of the main ruler of the Aztecs, in which there were entire craft workshops (weaving, pottery, jewelry, etc.) to produce unique things. The luxurious palace park at one time amazed even the Spanish conquistadors; exotic birds and animals were kept in the aviary at the palace.

Fall of the Empire

The Spaniards first entered the Aztec lands in 1519, it was a detachment of conquistadors, numbering just over 500 people, led by Hernando Cortez. The wonderful Aztec warriors, who outnumbered the detachment thousands of times, offered virtually no resistance to him along the entire route, and in Tenochtitlan itself the Spaniards were even greeted with honors. Ruler Montezuma II resignedly submitted to the invaders, calling on his subjects to recognize the power of pale-faced foreigners.

According to many historians, an amazing coincidence played into Cortez’s hands - the fair-skinned and bearded Spaniard was mistaken by the Aztecs for the exiled god Quetzalcoatl, who had returned to take the throne. Very quickly, Cortez's soldiers, feeling complete impunity, began to behave completely differently than befits the gods. Brazen and aggressive “fortune hunters”, driven by a thirst for gold, robbed and killed the local population, burned their houses and raped women.

A spontaneous uprising of the common people led to the overthrow and murder of the submissive Montezuma, and the Spanish invaders were briefly driven out of Tenochtitlan. However, the new ruler Cuitlaulaku (brother of the murdered man) turned out to be the same meek and obedient toy in the hands of Cortez. After a long siege, in August 1521, the Aztec capital was defeated, and the young Cuauhtemoc ascended the throne. The scion of a noble Aztec family, who turned out to be a protege of the Spaniards, was killed in 1525, by which time the empire had virtually ceased to exist and was mercilessly plundered and destroyed.

Nowadays, the ruins of the mighty Tenochtitlan are hidden from view and buried directly under the buildings of modern Mexico City, founded in the 16th century by the conquistadors. In the last two centuries, archaeologists have periodically discovered evidence for contemporaries of the existence of the Aztec empire, but these are just grains.

“In the 12th century, the Toltec power fell under the blows of the northern wild tribes. Thus, the end of the second (after Teotihuacan) civilization of Mesoamerica came. The surviving Toltec farmers, who had a wealth of knowledge, assimilated with their conquerors and continued to move south. The merger of the barbarian northern tribes with the Toltecs served as the basis for the creation of the last powerful civilization of Central America - the Aztec Empire. The latter absorbed all the knowledge and traditions of their predecessors.”

Aztecs or Tenochki were one of the last northern tribes who settled in the territory by the beginning of the 13th century Mesoamerica, in the valley Mexico City. The very origins of this Indian tribe are shrouded in legends. What is known for certain is that in terms of their level of development they stood slightly higher than other northern tribes and were no less warlike than the same Chichimecs. Settled in new lands Mexica(as the Aztecs called themselves) complete disappointment awaited. This area was home to several tribes. In addition, there was a struggle for supremacy between 3 city-states - Azcapotzalco, Culhuacan and Texcoco. Despite their reputation as brave warriors, the Aztecs were small in number at that time. tribe and were not a serious force. In conditions of fierce competition, it was necessary not only to occupy a dominant position, but also to survive. Meshiki skillfully took advantage of the situation, offering the services of soldiers for hire and going over to the winning side. At the beginning Aztecs were tribe mercenaries Tepanecs, with its center in the city of Azcapotzalco. The tenochki served them faithfully for a little less than 50 years and in 1298 they went into the service of the leader of Culhuacan. Aztecs were so devoted to the new owner that in 1323 the ruler of Culhuacan gave his daughter (from the Toltec family) in marriage to the leader of the Aztecs. However, the priests of the bloody Aztec god Huitzilopochtli forced the groom to sacrifice the bride. Having learned about what had happened, the leader of Culhuacan drove the former vassals out of the city. Long journey led the Aztecs to an uninhabited island near a lake Texcoco. According to the myth, the god Huitzilopochtli, having heard the requests of his people, ordered them to settle where an eagle with a snake in its beak would sit on a cactus. Such a place most likely turned out to be an island by the lake. This is where the foundations of the city were laid Tenochtitlan- the capital of the future Aztec empire. Toponym Tenochtitlan Nahua is translated from the Indian language as “place of cactus fruit.”

The Aztecs were in dire need of building materials to build the city. The area was swampy, and the lake water was salty and undrinkable. Aztecs These problems had to be solved with the help of neighbors from the coast, who provided the Mexica with everything they needed, and they protected them. By the middle of the 14th century, 2 city-states peacefully coexisted near Lake Texcoco. A group that broke away from the Aztecs - Tlatelolca built a city in the north of the island Tlatelolco, and the shadows are in the south of the city Tenochtitlan. Due to family ties, at one time there was no acute territorial struggle between the parties. However, the peace did not last long. In 1373, the more advanced southerners forcibly subjugated their northern neighbors to their will. Coastal city Texcoco also became a victim of the warlike Aztecs. A confederation was formed between the 3 city-states in 1427, which together continued further territorial conquests.

Tenochtitlan over its almost two-century history, it has gone from a small settlement with miserable reed huts to large center empire, built of stone and decorated with precious metals. In the capital Aztecs construction work did not stop until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. In 1427, the Aztecs, together with their allies, began to seize neighboring territories. By the beginning of the 16th century. Aztec Empire was located on an area of 200 thousand km2, which was inhabited by approximately 7 million people. The end of the great power came in 1521. After a three-month assault on the capital Aztecs was captured and destroyed by Spanish conquistadors led by Hernan Cortes. On the ruins of the city, the Spaniards built Mexico City, which became the center of Spanish expansion in Mesoamerica. The fate of the last ruler of the Aztecs, Montezuma, was very dramatic. The greedy Spaniards demanded a huge ransom in gold for the captured Mexica king. Even after receiving such a huge payment, Cortez's soldiers demonstratively executed the Aztec ruler. On the site of the palace Montezuma built the residence of Hernan Cortes. Subsequently, the future capital of Mexico was rebuilt more than once. Traces of the latter great civilization remained deep underground. Only construction work that began at the beginning of the 20th century allowed the wonders of Aztec culture to be revealed to the world.

Of particular interest is lifestyle Mexica. Social inequality was very clearly manifested in the housing being built in the capital of the empire. Thanks to the surviving records of the Spaniards, it is known that in order to build dwellings and pyramids The Aztecs used mortar, adoba (dried brick), baked brick, and stone. Cedar and pine were used to decorate palaces and pyramids. Before the arrival of the conquistadors, the houses of the poor resembled small shacks built of baked bricks. The dwellings of the noble Aztecs were built mainly from stone.

Like older civilizations ( Mayan And Toltecs), was also popular among the Aztecs ball game tlachtli, which had a religious character. Special stadiums were built for sporting events. With its religious cult and rituals mexicans slightly different from their predecessors. The main deities of the Aztecs were: Huitzilopochtli- god of war and sun, as well as patron of the capital, Quetzalcoatlus- god of knowledge, winds, Tezcatlipoca- predictor of the future. Moreover, having subjugated neighboring lands, along with the local population, their deities also fell into slavery. IN Tenochtitlan there were a large number of temples, and there were thousands of them on the territory. Not a single day among the Aztecs was complete without rituals. The performers of these events were priests who had great authority among the Aztec people. The clergy in the Aztec empire was divided into black and white priests. The first were forbidden to enter into relationships with representatives of the weaker sex and generally monitor their appearance. Priests took part in the ceremony of accession to the throne tlatoani(rulers) of the empire.

The army played a special role in increasing the prestige of the Aztec capital. In addition to Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlatelolco took part in joint campaigns. Weapon Mexica mainly used for protection. Aztecs did not seek to destroy the conquered peoples, but took them captive for use in sacrificial rituals. Military campaign stopped as soon as the victors captured the main temple of the defeated enemy. The conquered peoples recognized the power of the Aztec ruler and had to visit the capital with expensive gifts every month Mexica. To create weapons, wood, leather, fabric, metal and stone components were used, and the blood of wild animals was also added. Long spears tipped with obsidian or copper, bows and arrows, bows and arrows, and javelins were widely used in battle. Leather armor and a wooden shield served as protection.

Aztecs, like their predecessors, were also excellent artists. Among Mexica there were many architects, sculptors, artists, stone carvers, jewelers and representatives of other professions. Using the experience of previous Indian peoples, they created beautiful architectural structures and decorated them with precious metals. Pyramids, built by the Aztecs, like those of previous civilizations, were tetrahedral. At their top were temples, where the ritual of sacrifice and other important events were held. Like the Toltecs, the Mexica calendar had a cycle of 52 years, each with 260 days. The year consisted of 13 months of 20 days each. At the end of the next cycle, the Aztecs expected some kind of natural disaster.

Many examples have survived to this day. Aztec civilization. An example of the skill of the sculptors is the three-meter basalt statue of the goddess of fertility and earth discovered in 1790 Coatlicue. Today this historical monument is kept in the National Museum of Anthropology of the capital Mexico. At the beginning of the 20th century, on one of the streets of Mexico City, during construction work, stone slabs were discovered that were fragments of the main temple of T Enochtitlan, as well as various sizes of sculptures. In the 70-80s. 20th century, not far from the presidential residence and during the construction of the capital's metro, sanctuaries of the gods were discovered Huitzilopochtli And Tlaloc, as well as fresco products with paintings. Another find was the Calendar Stone ( Sun stone), which contains pictographic signs. This stone proves that the Aztecs had their own written language, consisting of pictograms and symbols reminiscent of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. As a result of excavations, jewelry, ceramics, figurines of deities, necklaces and much more were also discovered.

Thus, it can be argued that Aztecs, having absorbed everything best qualities their great predecessors, managed to create their own rich civilization. The last civilization in Central America. The valuable finds found confirm this statement.

And by Mexican scientists of the 19th century as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian population.

The Aztecs themselves called themselves “mexica”, or “tenochka” and “tlaltelolca” - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “Mexica” (Ast. mēxihcah, from which the word “Mexico” comes), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Mexitli (Mexitli, Mextli), a type of algae, native to Lake Texcoco. The most famous translator of the Nahuatl language, Miguel Leon-Portilla (Spanish. Miguel Leon-Portilla), states that this word means "middle of the moon" - from the words metztli (Mekstli, Metztli, Meshtli, Metztli - Moon) and xictli(middle). The self-name “tenochki” may come from the name of Tenoch, another legendary ruler.

Story

The Aztec tribe came to the Valley of Mexico from the north - from lands that now belong to the United States. At that time, the entire territory of the valley was divided between local tribes, and, naturally, none of them wanted to share the land with strangers. After consulting, the local leaders decided [ ] give to strangers desert island on Lake Texcoco. There were many snakes on the island, so local residents They expected that the strangers on the island would have a hard time.

Arriving on the island, the Aztecs were happy because snakes were their food. The Aztecs saw an eagle holding a snake in its paws as a good omen.

The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities. There were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat and even recover in special places equipped for this purpose, located every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers constantly plied along these routes ( Painani), keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec Empire led to one of the largest population explosions: the population of Mesoamerica increased [ When?] from 10 to 15 million people [ ] .

The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec Emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of Emperor Huey Tlahtoani (Ast. Huey Tlahtoani) is roughly translated as “Great Orator”: Tlatocque(Ast. tlatoque, “speakers”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuitzotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial title, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.

In the middle of the 15th century, Tlacaelel played an important role in the empire ( Tlahcaelel from Nahuatl - “brave heart”). He could become tlatoani(Ast. tlahtoani), but chose to remain in the shadow of the jaguar's mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew tlatoani Itzcoatl (ast. Itzcoatl) and brother of Chimalpopoca (ast. Chimalpopoca) and Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina (ast. Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina) and bore the title “Cihuacoatl” (Chihuacoatl; ast. Cihuacóatl, in honor of the goddess Chihuacóatl, the equivalent of an adviser); as written in Ramirez's manuscript, "what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as quickly as possible." He was a tough reformer; he created a new structure for governing the country, ordered most of the Aztec books to be burned, claiming that they were all false, and rewrote Aztec history. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion, placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (perhaps exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of “flower wars” and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continued to move across the sky. These establishments served to speed up the fall of the Aztec empire during the Conquest and the campaign of Cortez.

By the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.