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St. Petersburg State Marine Technical University

Department of Ship Automation and Measurements

ABSTRACT

by discipline: “Subjects and objects of maritime law”

Subject: "Classification of oceans and seas"

PERFORMED BY: Shitov S.Yu.

CHECKED BY: Professor Alekseev A.V.

St. Petersburg, 2007

ABSTRACT

Report 16 pp., 2 figures, 4 tables, literature - 9 titles.

DIVISION OF THE EARTH'S SPACE, WORLD OCEAN, SEA, CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, OTTO KRUMMEL, VOEYKOV A.I.

The purpose of the work is to trace changes in the classifications of oceans and seas over time. The object of study is the classification of oceans and seas.

Dividing the spaces of the Earth. The sea occupies much more space than land. The world ocean is a body of water surrounding land. Sea - a part of the ocean more or less isolated by land, islands or elevated underwater terrain. Until recently, science was dominated by the old classical classification system, introduced in 1845 by the Royal Geographical Society of London. The world's oceans were divided into 5 main parts: Pacific Ocean (47%), Atlantic Ocean (24%), Indian Ocean(20%), Southern Arctic Ocean (5%) and Northern. Arctic Ocean (4%). Recently, a new, more rational classification by Krummel, introduced in 1878, has begun to prevail. Krummel rightly rejects the identification of a special Southern Arctic Ocean, because its boundaries cannot be drawn anywhere. The so-called Southern Arctic Ocean has to be divided into three longitudes big oceans. The Arctic Ocean is excluded for another reason - it has the character of a sea surrounded by land rather than a real ocean, and, moreover, its depth, with few exceptions, is very shallow. Finally, in 1895, A.I. Voeikov proposed dividing the seas (adhering to Krummel’s view of the oceans themselves) as follows: Mediterranean seas, island seas, transitional seas, bays or marginal seas. The Southern Arctic Ocean is 1/2 part of the Pacific Ocean, and 1/4 part of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.

INTRODUCTION

1. Separation of the Earth’s spaces …………………………………………………

2. Classification system of the London Geographical Society ………….

3. Krümmel classification system……………………………………………

4. Voeikov’s classification system……………………………………………..

5. Scheme of classifications of oceans and seas……………………………..…………

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………..

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………

Introduction

Most The surface of our planet is occupied by water. The problem of classification arises water resources. In this abstract, three options for solving this problem will be considered: the classification system of the London Geographical Society, the classification system of Otto Krummel, the classification system of A.I. Voeykova.

1. Dividing the Earth's spaces

The surface of our planet Earth consists of continents and seas, or land and water, located so that land occupies only 26.5%, and sea 73.5% of the entire surface of the Earth. The sea occupies a much larger area than land, and there is an even greater difference between the two hemispheres. Thus, in the northern hemisphere, land occupies 40%, and in the southern hemisphere only 14%.

Table 1 shows the grouping of land and sea by individual latitudes. It shows that not only across the two hemispheres, but also across the parallels, they are distributed very unevenly.

Table 1 – Percentage of sushi

Hemispheres

northern

Land and water areas are grouped into separate units. The largest units of land are called continents, and the largest units of water are called oceans.

The World Ocean - the water space surrounding the land, occupies 71.7% (about 365 million sq. km.). The ocean is a large part of the world's oceans, possessing all the properties inherent in the world's oceans. Parts of the oceans adjacent to land are called seas, bays, bays, and straits.

The sea is a part of the ocean, more or less isolated by land, islands or elevations of underwater relief and differing from the open part of the ocean in hydrological and meteorological conditions: salinity, water temperature, currents, etc. The more closed the sea is by land, the more it differs from the ocean. Sometimes the sea can be an open part of the ocean or large lake.

But the most superficial glance at the map is enough to indicate a significant difference between the grouping of land and seas. The parts of the first are truly and sharply separated from each other, that is, surrounded on all sides by seas, and in this regard we can say that there are only islands of different sizes, of which the largest are called continents, therefore, there is only a difference in names. The seas are all in continuous communication with each other and, moreover, with the exception of those that can be called Mediterranean and island, they are connected by wide and deep parts. As a result of this and the mobility of the liquid, constant communication is maintained between all the sea waters of the globe by a system of different movements, of which the more regular and constant ones are called currents. Marine water spaces are divided by size into oceans (the largest parts) and seas.

2. London Geographical Society classification system

Until recently, science was dominated by the old classical classification system, introduced in 1845 by the Royal Geographical Society of London. There were 5 different Oceans. The world ocean was divided into 5 main parts: the Pacific Ocean (47%), the Atlantic Ocean (24%), the Indian Ocean (20%), the Southern Arctic Ocean (5%) and the Northern. Arctic Ocean (4%).

The Pacific Ocean borders the Arctic Circle from the south, the meridian of Cape Horn and the shores of both Americas from the east, the Bering Strait from the north, and the shores of Asia, the Greater Sunda Islands, Australia, and Tasmania from the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders on the Arctic Circle from the south and the Cape meridian from the east. Good Hope, with the shores of Africa, Europe, from the north - with the Arctic Circle, from the west - with the shores of America and the meridian of Cape Horn to the Arctic Circle. The Indian Ocean is bordered on the south by the Arctic Circle, on the east by the meridian of Tasmania, the shores of this island, Australia and the greater Sunda Islands, on the north by the shores of Asia, on the west by the shores of Africa and the meridian of the Cape of Good Hope to the Arctic Circle... Hopes to the Arctic Circle; The Arctic or Arctic Ocean borders the shores of Asia and North America, and where they are interrupted, then with the Arctic Circle; The Antarctic or Southern Arctic borders in the north with the southern polar circle, and in the south with the shores of the Antarctic continent. These boundaries also included all parts of the oceans that more or less went deep into the continents, as long as they were in direct connection with them through straits. Such parts of the oceans are called seas and, according to the old classification, were recognized as of two types: internal and external. The first included seas connected to the oceans by narrow straits, for example: the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the second - those adjacent to the oceans on their entire side, for example, the Arabian, Gulf of Guinea.

3 . Krümmel classification system

Recently, a new, more rational classification by Krummel, introduced in 1878, has begun to prevail. In this system, only the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are accepted as the most extensive, deep and having an independent system of currents. Krummel rightly rejects the identification of a special Southern Arctic Ocean, because its boundaries cannot be drawn anywhere. The further south you go to the high southern latitudes, the more the oceans expand and the percentage of land decreases. There are no natural boundaries here, and the so-called Southern Arctic Ocean has to be distributed by longitude between three large oceans. The Arctic Ocean is excluded for another reason - it has the character of a sea surrounded by land rather than a real ocean, and, moreover, its depth, with few exceptions, is very small; according to Krümmel's classification, this is one of his four Mediterranean seas.

The three other Mediterranean seas in this classification divide what Krümmel calls the northern and southern continents. The sea, usually called the Mediterranean, with the Marmara, Black and Azov, separates Europe from Africa and Asia, the sea between Asia and Australia, called the Asian-Australian Mediterranean Sea, separates these two continents; finally, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, which he calls the American Mediterranean Sea, separates the continents of North and South America. In addition to the oceans and Mediterranean seas, Krummel also receives the so-called outlying seas, which include, for example, the German Sea, the Gulf of California, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, the East China Sea, the Japanese Sea, the Bering Sea and others. But it will be more convenient to recognize as Mediterranean seas only those that are separated from the oceans and marginal seas by relatively very narrow and shallow straits to such an extent that the entire system of equilibrium of their waters, temperature distribution, etc. are under very weak influence of the ocean. Thus, these real Mediterranean seas are, as it were, transitional to the large salt lakes, our Caspian and Aral, which are usually also given the name of seas. According to this classification, there are only seven Mediterranean seas on the globe, of which four form one common, i.e. interconnected, system, and are connected to the ocean only through the outermost of them. I mean the real so-called Mediterranean Sea with the Marmara, Black and Azov seas. This is the central and most typical Mediterranean sea on the globe. Then, to the North of it is the Baltic Sea, to the South - the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Note that the real Mediterranean seas are located only in the western part of the Old World and nowhere else. They are connected to the ocean not only by relatively narrow and shallow straits, but also by a few: the Mediterranean Sea by one, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf by two, the Baltic by three.

4. Voeikov classification system

Finally, in 1895, A.I. Voeikov proposed dividing the seas (adhering to Krummel’s view of the oceans themselves) as follows: the Mediterranean seas are areas surrounded by 19/20 continents and connected to the oceans or other seas by straits, the width of which is not more than 1 km . for every 5000 sq. km. the total surface of the sea, provided that there are no more than 3 such straits; island - which are 1/5 limited to islands and are connected to the oceans or other seas by many straits, but provided that each is not wider than 300 km; transitional - seas limited on 2/3 of the surface by continents, and the rest connected to other waters by straits wider than 300 km; bays or marginal seas - in which the ratio of the width of the straits to their area is less than 1 km. for 10 sq. km. and the straits are not narrower than the sea itself. According to this classification there will be: Mediterranean - the Mediterranean and the seas connected to it, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Baltic; island - Asian-Australian, American Mediterranean, Japanese and Okhotsk Seas.; transitional - the Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bering Sea, the East China Sea; bays - the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the Bay of Biscay, the Gulf of California, the Gulf of Guinea, the German Sea, etc. Of course, each of the above classifications is not free from reproaches, but their very appearance indicates the progress of this issue.

Table 2 – Space of oceans and seas according to the classification of A.I. Voeykova

Name

Thousands of square kilometers

Oceans (with bays)

Transitional seas

Island seas

Mediterranean seas

Atlantic

North Arctic

Mediterranean (with Black, etc.)

Baltic

American Mediterranean

Beringovo

East Chinese

Okhotsk

Japanese

Asian-Australian

Indian

Persian Gulf

The Southern Arctic Ocean is 1/2 part of the Pacific Ocean, and 1/4 part of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.

The space of oceans and seas according to the latest classification is shown in Table 2; but since the other two classifications are also found in scientific works, we present these data for both.

Table 3 – Space of oceans and seas according to the classification of the London Geographical Society

Million sq. km.

Million sq. geogr. miles

Taking the Pacific Ocean as a unit

Atlantic

Indian

Antarctic

Arctic

The entire water surface

For classification according to Krümmel's method, we present surfaces and volumes according to the last calculation of Carstens in 1894. This calculation does not agree with Krümmel's classification in only one way, namely, the Southern Arctic Ocean is not divided between three main ones; however, Krummel also gave its value in his previous calculations.

Table 4 – Space of oceans and seas according to Krummel’s classification

Average depths, in m.

Surface area, in sq. km.

Volume, in cubic meters km.

Greatest depths, in m.

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

All oceans

Arctic Mediterranean Sea

Australian-Asian Mediterranean

American Mediterranean

Mediterranean Sea

Hudson Bay

Baltic Sea

Red sea

Persian Gulf

All Mediterranean seas

German Sea

British marginal seas

St. Lawrence Bay

Andaman Sea

East China Sea

Japanese Sea

Sea of ​​Okhotsk

Bering Sea

California Bay

All marginal seas

Atlantic Ocean with its seas

Indian Ocean and its seas

The Pacific Ocean with its seas

Southern Arctic Sea

In this table in the last column the greatest depths are given according to the latest research, and for the Southern Arctic Ocean the depth found

Rice. 1. Scheme of classifications of oceans and seas

Rice. 2. Map of planet Earth

Ross and in modern times accepted by Murray, editor of the works of the Challenger expedition.

5. Scheme of classifications of oceans and seas

In Fig. 1. shows a diagram of the classifications of oceans and seas in accordance with:

1. Classification of the London Geographical Society 1845

2. Classification by Krummel Otto 1878

3. Classification by Voeikov A.I. 1895

CONCLUSION

This abstract discussed various ways division of the Earth's water space. The presence of several classifications of oceans and seas suggests that it is difficult to propose an optimal classification the first time. The classifications discussed in this abstract may continue to undergo a number of changes and be supplemented, or a completely new classification will appear. This situation is possible because people’s ideas about the structure of our planet may change as a result of various scientific experiments and research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gatsunaev N.K. Geographers and travelers: A brief biographical dictionary. – M. Ripol Classic, 2001 – 573 p.

2. Kezling A. B. Observatory - geographical atlas of the world. – M.: Uniintekh, 2004 – 180 p.

3. Pirozhnik I.I. Geography of the world's oceans. – M.: TetraSystems, 2006 – 320 p.

4. Pritula T.Yu. Physical geography of continents and oceans. – M.: Vlados, 2004 – 685 p.

5. Stowe D. Encyclopedia of the Oceans. – M.: World of Books, 2007 – 256 p.

6. #"#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""> Data are given according to the latest research by Tillo, " Average height continents and the depth of the seas", in "Izv. I. R. geogr. general.", 1889)

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