Sculptors of antiquity surnames. What are the features of ancient Greek sculpture

Considering that sculpture is the most ancient form of art, its connection with the cult in ancient times is inseparable. Perhaps the absolute majority of the surviving sculptures of the Stone Age are somehow connected with the cult and can be called "sculptures of the gods". Later, when totemism replaced animism, the sculptural images of the gods became clearer and more pronounced.

Sculptural images of pagan gods are most often made in stone or carved from wood. Unfortunately, there is not so much evidence of pagan culture on the territory of Russia. Most often, in the museums of our country there are only a few copies that are not very well preserved. Among them, the so-called Great Shigir idol, made in the 8th millennium BC, is especially valuable. The date is impressive as the sculpture is older than the figures of Egyptian gods, as well as sculptures from Mesopotamia.

Sculptures of Egyptian gods are known to everyone from pictures in school textbooks. The most monumental of them were once located in the temples of Luxor and Karnak, in the rocky temples of the Nile Valley. full of various figurines and small sculptures of Anubis, Set, Horus, Isis, Osiris, etc. According to the Egyptian tradition, all sculptures are depicted either sitting or taking a step forward (a step into eternity). Perfectly symmetrical faces, body proportions are strictly defined by the canon. Huge eyes (the Egyptians believed that one of the human souls lives in the eyes) make Egyptian sculptures expressive and spiritualized.

Perhaps it was ancient culture that gave world culture the most highly artistic sacred sculptures. It is worth mentioning two masterpieces of the great Phidias - sculptures of Athena Parthenos and Olympian Zeus. The second figure has survived only in marble copies, giving an idea only of the appearance of the sculpture, devoid of its former grandeur and realism. The originals of the statues of Athena and Zeus were made in a sophisticated chrysoelephantine technique (a wooden base covered with thin gold plates (hair, clothing and weapons) and thin ivory plates (exposed parts of the body)). The use of ivory made the sculpture unusually realistic, conveying the texture of white, translucent skin in warm shades, and the golden sheen gave the majesty and the feeling of the boundless power of the gods.

Sculptures of antique gods decorate. you can see sculptures of Venus and Nike. Both sculptures were created in the second century BC. Different authors, different interpretations of images, different approaches. But the general harmony, plasticity and craftsmanship make these sculptures masterpieces of ancient sculpture.

The figure of the resting Hermes (National Museum of Naples) is interesting. Free, relaxed posture, pacification and detachment on the face. There is nothing “divine” in the figure, only winged sandals indicate that we are faced with the god of trade, the patron saint of crooks.

The Archaeological Museum in Athens is rightfully proud of the unique bronze sculpture of Poseidon, perfectly preserved in the sea, near Cape Artemison. This image, created during the Hellenistic era, is characterized by energy, inner tension and dynamics. A certain emotionality inherent in all sculptures of Hellenism makes the monument interesting for detailed study.

The sculptures of the ancient gods in terms of aesthetics and content actually repeat the works of Greek masters. The only merit of the Romans in sculpture is the realistic images. Since most of the emperors were deified, then in many sculptures of Mars, Jupiters and Neptunes one can recognize some of the august rulers of the great empire.

When faced with Greek art, many distinguished minds expressed genuine admiration. One of the most famous researchers of the art of ancient Greece, Johann Winckelmann (1717-1768), says about Greek sculpture: “Connoisseurs and imitators of Greek works find in their workshops not only the most beautiful nature, but also more than nature, namely, some of its ideal beauty, which ... is created from images sketched by the mind. " Everyone who writes about Greek art notes in it an amazing combination of naive immediacy and depth, reality and fiction. In him, especially in sculpture, the ideal of man is embodied. What is the peculiarity of the ideal? How did he fascinate people so much that the aged Goethe sobbed in the Louvre in front of the sculpture of Aphrodite?

The Greeks have always believed that a beautiful soul can live only in a beautiful body. Therefore, the harmony of the body, external perfection is an indispensable condition and basis for an ideal person. The Greek ideal is defined by the term kalokagatiya(Greek. kalos- beautiful + agathos kind). Since kalokagatya includes perfection of both bodily constitution and a spiritually moral make-up, simultaneously with beauty and strength, the ideal carries justice, chastity, courage and rationality. This is what makes the Greek gods, carved by ancient sculptors, uniquely beautiful.

http://historic.ru/lostcivil/greece/gallery/stat_001.shtml The best monuments of ancient Greek sculpture were created in the 5th century. BC. But earlier works have come down to us. Statues of the 7th-6th centuries BC are symmetrical: one half of the body is a mirror image of the other. Stiff poses, outstretched arms pressed against the muscular body. Not the slightest tilt or turn of the head, but the lips are parted in a smile. A smile illuminates the sculpture from the inside with an expression of the joy of life.

Later, in the period of classicism, the statues acquire a greater variety of forms.

There were attempts to comprehend harmony algebraically. The first scientific study of what harmony is was undertaken by Pythagoras. The school he founded considered questions of a philosophical and mathematical nature, applying mathematical calculations to all aspects of reality. Neither musical harmony, nor the harmony of the human body or architectural structure were an exception. The Pythagorean school considered number to be the basis and beginning of the world.

What does number theory have to do with Greek art? It turns out to be the most direct, since the harmony of the spheres of the Universe and the harmony of the whole world is expressed by the same ratios of numbers, the main of which are the ratios 2/1, 3/2 and 4/3 (in music, these are octave, fifth and fourth, respectively). In addition, harmony presupposes the possibility of calculating any correlation of parts of each object, including sculpture, according to the following proportion: a / b = b / c, where a is any smaller part of the object, b is any large part, c is the whole. On this basis, the great greek sculptor Polycletus (5th century BC) created a sculpture of a young man-spear-bearer (5th century BC), which is called "Dorifor" ("Spear-bearer") or "Canon" - after the name of the sculptor's work, where he, arguing on the theory of art, examines the laws of depicting a perfect person. It is believed that the artist's reasoning can be attributed to his sculpture.

Polycletus' statues are full of busy life. Polycletus loved to portray athletes at rest. Take the same "Spearman". This powerful man is full of self-esteem. He stands motionless in front of the viewer. But this is not the static rest of the ancient Egyptian statues. As a man who skillfully and easily controls his body, the spearman slightly bent one leg and shifted the weight of the body to the other. It seems that a moment will pass and he will take a step forward, turn his head, proud of his beauty and strength. Before us is a man strong, handsome, free from fear, proud, restrained - the embodiment of Greek ideals.

Unlike his contemporary Polykleitos, Myron liked to depict his statues in motion. Here, for example, the statue "Discobolus" (V century BC; Museum Term. Rome). Its author, the great sculptor Miron, depicted a handsome young man at the moment when he swung a heavy disc. His body, captured by the movement, is bent and tense, like a spring ready to unfold. The trained muscles bulged under the firm skin of the arm laid back. The toes pressed deep into the sand, forming a solid support. The statues of Myron and Polycletus were cast in bronze, but only marble copies of ancient Greek originals made by the Romans have survived.

The greatest sculptor of his time, the Greeks considered Phidias, who decorated the Parthenon with a marble sculpture. In his sculptures, it is especially reflected that the gods in Greece are nothing more than images of an ideal person. The best preserved marble strip of the frieze relief is 160 m long. It depicts a procession heading to the temple of the goddess Athena - the Parthenon.

The sculpture of the Parthenon was badly damaged. And "Athena Parthenos" died in ancient times. She stood inside the temple and was incredibly beautiful. The head of the goddess with a low, smooth forehead and a rounded chin, the neck and arms were made of ivory, and the hair, clothing, shield and helmet were minted from sheets of gold. The goddess in the form of a beautiful woman is the personification of Athens.

http://historic.ru/lostcivil/greece/gallery/stat_007.shtml Many stories are associated with this sculpture. The created masterpiece was so great and famous that its author immediately had a lot of envious people. They tried to fool the sculptor in every possible way and looked for various reasons why they could accuse him of something. They say that Phidias was accused of allegedly hiding part of the gold given as material for the decoration of the goddess. To prove his innocence, Phidias removed all the gold objects from the sculpture and weighed them. The weight exactly matched the weight of the gold given to the sculpture. Then Phidias was accused of atheism. The reason for this was the shield of Athena. It depicted the plot of the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. Among the Greeks, Phidias portrayed himself and his beloved Pericles. The image of Phidias on the shield caused the conflict. Despite all the achievements of Phidias, the Greek public was able to set up a protest against him. The life of the great sculptor ended in a cruel execution.

Phidias' achievements in the Parthenon were not exhaustive for his work. The sculptor created many other works, the best of which were the colossal bronze figure of Athena Promachos, erected on the Acropolis in about 460 BC, and the equally huge ivory and gold figure of Zeus for the temple at Olympia. Unfortunately, authentic works no longer exist and we cannot see the magnificent works of art with our own eyes. Ancient Greece... Only their descriptions and copies remained. This was largely due to the fanatical destruction of statues by believing Christians.

This is how you can describe the statue of Zeus for the temple in Olympia: A huge fourteen-meter god was sitting on a golden throne, and it seemed that he stood up, straightening his broad shoulders - it would become cramped for him in the vast hall and the ceiling would be low. The head of Zeus was decorated with a wreath of olive branches - a sign of the peacefulness of a formidable god. The face, shoulders, arms, chest were made of ivory, and the cloak was thrown over the left shoulder. The crown and beard of Zeus were of glittering gold.

Phidias endowed Zeus with human nobility. His handsome face, framed by a curly beard and curly hair, was not only stern, but also kind, his posture was solemn, dignified and calm. The combination of bodily beauty and kindness of the soul emphasized his divine ideality. The statue made such an impression that, according to the ancient author, people, dejected with grief, sought consolation in contemplating the creation of Phidias. Rumor has declared the statue of Zeus one of the "seven wonders of the world."

The works of all three sculptors were similar in that they all depicted the harmony of a beautiful body and a kind soul enclosed in it. This was the main focus of the time.

Of course, the norms and attitudes in Greek art have changed throughout history. The art of the archaic was more straightforward, it lacked the reticence full of deep meaning, which delights humanity in the period Greek classics... In the era of Hellenism, when man lost a sense of the stability of the world, art lost its old ideals. It began to reflect the feelings of uncertainty about the future that reigned in the social currents of that time.

One thing united all periods of the development of Greek society and art: this, as M. Alpatov writes, is a special predilection for plastics, for spatial arts. This predilection is understandable: huge stocks of varied in color, noble and ideal material - marble - presented ample opportunities for its implementation. Although most of the Greek sculptures were made in bronze, since marble was fragile, it was the texture of marble with its color and decorativeness that made it possible to reproduce the beauty of the human body with the greatest expressiveness. Therefore, most often " human body, its structure and pliability, its slenderness and flexibility attracted the attention of the Greeks, they willingly portrayed the human body both naked and in light transparent clothing. "

I found an interesting hypothesis regarding the ancient Greek miracle in the blog of the sculptor Nigel Konstam: he believes that antique statues were casts from living people, since otherwise it is impossible to explain such a rapid transition from the manufacture of static statues of the Egyptian type to the perfect realistic art of transferring movement, which occurs between 500 and 450 BC.



Nigel confirms his hypothesis by examining the feet antique statues comparing them with plaster prints and wax casts made from contemporary sitters standing in a given position. The deformation of the material on the feet confirms his hypothesis that the Greeks did not make statues, as before, but instead began to use casts from living people.
For the first time Konstama learned about this hypothesis from the movie "Athens. The Truth About Democracy", looked for material on the Internet and found this.

Nigel made a video explaining his hypothesis regarding antique casts and can be viewed here http://youtu.be/7fe6PL7yTck in English.
But let's take a look at the statues themselves first.

Antique statue of a kouros from the archaic era circa 530 BC. seems constrained and tense, then the counterpost was not yet known - the free position of the figure, when the balance of rest is created from movements opposite to each other.



Kuros, figure of a youth, early 5th century BC looks a little more dynamic.

Warriors from Riace, statues from the second quarter of the 5th century BC 197 cm high - the rarest find of original Greek sculpture of the classical period, most of which is known to us from Roman copies. In 1972, Roman snorkeling engineer Stefano Mariottini found them at the bottom of the sea off the coast of Italy.

These bronze figures were not cast entirely, their parts were fastened together like a constructor, which allows you to learn much more about the technique of creating sculptures of that time. Their pupils are made of gold paste, eyelashes and teeth are made of silver, lips and nipples are made of copper, and their eyes are made of bone and glass inlaid techniques.
That is, in principle, several times changed, as scientists have found, some of the details of the statues by casts from living models, albeit enlarged and improved, could well have been.

It was in the process of researching the gravity-deformed feet of the Warriors from Riace that the sculptor Konstam came up with this idea of ​​casts, which may have been used antique sculptors.

When watching the film "Athens. The Truth About Democracy" I was interested in how a rather fluffy sitter, from whom the plaster uniform was removed, felt, because many who had to wear plaster complained that it was painful to remove it, because they had to tear off their hair.

On the one hand, there are sources from which it is known that in ancient Greece, not only women, but also male athletes removed body hair.
On the other hand, it was their hairiness that differed from women. No wonder in the comedy of Aristophanes "Women in the National Assembly" one of the heroines who decided to take power away from men says:
- And so the first thing I threw the razor
Far away, to become rough and coarse,
Not a bit like a woman.

It turns out that if a man's hair was removed, then most likely those who were professionally involved in sports, namely such models, were needed by the sculptors.

Nevertheless, I read about plaster and found out that even in ancient times there were ways to combat this phenomenon: when masks and casts were made, the body of the sitters was smeared with special oil ointments, thanks to which the plaster was removed painlessly, even if there was hair on the body. That is, the technique of casts not only from the dead, but also from a living person in ancient times was really well known in Egypt, however, it was the transfer of movement and copying of a person that was not considered beautiful there.

But for the Hellenes, a beautiful human body, perfect in its nakedness, seemed to be the greatest value and object of worship. Perhaps that is why they did not see anything reprehensible in using casts from such a body for making works of art.



Phryne in front of the Areopagus. J.L. Jerome. 1861, Hamburg, Germany.
On the other hand, they could well accuse the sculptor of wickedness and offending the gods because he used a hetera as a model for the statue of the goddess. In the case of Praxiteles, Phryne was accused of atheism. But would a non-heterosexual agree to pose for him?
The Areopagus justified her in 340 BC, however, after, during a speech in her defense, the orator Hyperides presented the original - naked Phryne, pulling off her tunic and rhetorically asking how such beauty could be guilty. After all, the Greeks believed that a beautiful body has an equally beautiful soul.
It is possible that even before him Praxiteles of the goddesses were portrayed naked, and the judges could consider it wickedness that the goddess was too similar to Phryne, as if one to one, and the accusation of the hetera herself of godlessness was only a pretext? Maybe they knew or guessed about the possibilities of working with plaster casts from a living person? And then an unnecessary question might arise: who do they worship in the temple - Phryne or the goddess.

With the help of photography, a modern computer artist "revived" Phryne, that is, of course, the statue of Aphrodite of Cnidus, and more specifically a copy of it, since the original has not reached us.
And, as we know, the ancient Greeks painted the statues, so it may well be that the getter could look like this if her skin was a little yellowish, for which, according to some sources, she was nicknamed Phryne.
Although in this case our contemporary is competing with Nikias, an artist, of course, and not a commander, to whom an incorrect reference is made in Wikipedia. Indeed, when asked which of his works Praxitel considered the best, he, according to legend, replied that those painted by Nikias.
By the way, this phrase remained mysterious for many centuries for those who did not know or did not believe that the finished greek sculptures were not white.
But it seems to me that the statue of Aphrodite itself was hardly painted that way, because scientists claim that the Greeks painted them quite variegated.

Rather, something like the color of Apollo from the Motley Gods exhibition "Bunte Götter".

And imagine how strange the sitter felt when he saw how people worship him in the image of a god.
Or not him, but his copy, which the artist proportionally enlarged, brightly colored and corrected minor physical inconsistencies and imperfections in accordance with the canon of Polycletus? This is your body, but bigger and better. Or is it not yours anymore? Could he have believed that the statue made from him was a statue of a god?

In one of the articles I also read about a huge amount of plaster blanks in an ancient Greek workshop for copies prepared for sending to Rome, which were discovered by archaeologists. Maybe it was, among other things, casts from people, and not just from statues?

I will not insist on Konstam's hypothesis that interested me: of course, specialists know better, but the fact that ancient sculptors, like modern ones, used casts of living people and parts of their bodies, is beyond doubt. Can you really think that the ancient Greeks were so stupid that, knowing what gypsum is, they would not have guessed?
But do you think making copies of living people is art or deception?