Long story of gallium comet. Comet Galleya - Heavenly Body or Cenner of the Apocalypse
It is considered to be a galeus comet. Judging by the historical chronicles, her history is already two more than a thousand years. And this is just what is recorded by ancient astronomers, who, of course, did not suspect that they deal with the same object over the centuries. Information available from modern scientists, humanity is obliged to Edmund Gallet, a versatile scientist who was able to summarize all the mention of comets and compare them with their observations. In 1705, he issued work, where he describes his reflections on the frequency of motion comet. To such conclusion, he came after noticed in historical documents that different time Several comets moved to Earth, moving along a very similar trajectory. Based on about the global attraction, Galley concluded that this is the same heavenly bodyMaking a full turn around the sun approximately 75 - 76 years. He also suggested the next appearance of this object near the Earth, but the confirmation of his theory did not wait. After his death, global scientists calculated the exact date of this comet and were looking forward to her next visit. When the theory was confirmed, the name of the one who first opened it was fixed behind the celestial body.
What is a galeus comet? All from the course it is known that comets consist of an icy nucleus and a tail formed by evaporating substances and the smallest solid particles. 
In 1986, scientists managed to understand more detail, which consists of a comet of Gallea. Photo, television images, observations, obtained by the European and Soviet probes made it possible to establish that the comet kernel is half consists of ice formed by frozen water, formaldehyde, in addition to the ice component, dust, non-volatile light hydrocarbons are also present. She begins his way for the orbit of Neptune, but completes the turn, a little not reaching the orbit of Venus. Once in 76 years of comet Galleya approaches very close to the sun. Then the ice, from which the kernel consists, begins to evaporate, picks up dust with him, stony substances and forms a delightful huge tail directed from the sun. Large particles during the flight are gradually separated, form a meteor flow. Twice a year, in May and October, when our planet passes through the orbit of the Gallet Comet, the inhabitants of the Earth can observe this amazing spectacle.
Comet Halley is interesting not only by scientists, but also astrologers and magicians. Superval people associate her appearance with all sorts of cataclysms. So, according to myths and legends, an apocalypse occurred thirteen and a half thousand years ago, as a result of which highly developed civilizations killed, and humanity returned to the wild existence without writing, speech, tools of labor. According to the beliefs of a number of astrologers and their calculations of the comet passing by the Earth, it was at that time that this heavenly body was in the immediate vicinity of our planet. They prove their theories with the provision of "evidence", or rather indicating the events that happened shortly before the appearance of this cosmic inhabitant: an earthquake in Lisbon in 1755 and in Sicily in 1908, in Armenia, Mexico, Uzbekistan in 1984 - 1988. 
In addition, mysticism tend to believe that significant negative events in the lives of humanity and land are taking place with a certain periodicity, and they are connected with the place of the orbit, where comet is Galleya at this moment. 2012 and the conflict of Japan with China they are associated since 1936, the coming to power in Germany the Nazis and so during these years the comet was at one point. They argue that the wines of the Second World War serves the passage of a mysterious comet near the militant pluto. Similar events they predict in 2017 - 2021.
Be that as it may, but soon the inhabitants of the Earth have to be convinced of the correctness or mistakes of these beliefs - the predicted difficulty years is completely close, and Comet Halley itself will visit us in 2061.
Comet Halley is a bright short-period comet, returning to the Sun every 75-76 years. It is the first comet for which the elliptical orbit was identified and the frequency of returns was established. Named in honor of E. Galleya. Meteor flows of this-aquarides and orionides are associated with comet. Despite the fact that every age appears a lot of brighter long-term comets, the Gallet Comet is the only short-period comet, well-visible to the naked eye. Starting with the oldest observations recorded in the historical sources of China and Babylon, at least 30 comet appearances were noted. The first reliably identifiable observation of comet Gallei refers to 240 BC. e. The last passage of the comet through the perigelium was in February 1986; The following is expected in mid-2061.
During the emergence of 1986, Kallei's comet became the first comet examined by spacecraft, including Soviet devices "Vega? 1" and "Vega? 2", which provided data on the structure of the cometary nucleus and the mechanisms of coma and the tail of comets.
Opening
Comet Gallet has become the first comet with proven periodicity. In European science, right up to the Renaissance, the view of Aristotle, which believed that comets were indignations in the Earth's atmosphere. However, before, and after Aristotle, many antique philosophers were expressed by very insurgent hypotheses about nature comet. So, according to Aristotle himself, Hippocrates Chios and his student, Eschil believed that "the tail does not belong to the comet itself, but it sometimes acquires it, wandering in space, because our visual beam, reflected from moisture, fascinated by the comet, reaches the sun. A comet, unlike other stars, appears through very large periods of time, because they say that it is extremely slow, so when she appears again in the same place, it has been done by the full turn. " In this statement, you can see the statement about the cosmic nature comets, the frequency of its movement and even the physical nature of the comettail, on which the sunlight is scattered, and which, as shown modern researchReally largely consists of gaseous water. Seneca not only talks about space origin Comet, but also offers a way of evidence of the frequency of their movement, implemented by Gallem: "It is necessary, however, that information on all the former appearances of comets are collected; For due to the rarity of their appearance, it is still impossible to establish their orbits; To find out whether they are observing the oddity and whether they appear exactly on their day in strict order. "
The idea of \u200b\u200bAristotle was refuted by Quiet Brage, who used the parallax surveillance of the comet of 1577 to show that she was from the earth further moon. However, uncertainty continued on the question of whether comets around the Sun or simply fly along the straight paths through the solar system.
Edmund Gales
In 1680-1681, 24-year-old Galley watched bright cometwhich first approached the Sun, and then removed from it, which contradicted the representation of the straight movement. Exploring this question, Galley realized that the centripetal force acting on the Comet from the Sun should decrease inversely in proportion to the square square. In 1682, in the year of the next appearance of a comet, called by his name later, Galley turned to Robert a thief with a question - for which curve there will be a body under the action of such strength, but did not receive a response, although the GUK hinted that the answer is known to him. Gales went to Cambridge to Isaac Newton, who immediately replied that, according to his calculations, the movement would take place on an ellipse. Newton continued to work on the problem of movement of bodies under the influence of the forces, specifying and developing calculations, and at the end of 1684 sent Halleus his treatise "Move Tel in Orbit". Delightful Galley reported on the results of Newton at a meeting of the Royal Society of London on December 10, 1684 and asked Newton to resolve the treatise. Newton agreed and promised to send a continuation. In 1686, at the request of Gallei, Newton sent the first two parts of its expanded treatise, called the "mathematical starts of natural philosophy", in the London Royal Society, where the GUK caused a scandal, stating his priority, but was not supported by his colleagues. In 1687, the most famous Treatise Newton was printed on the money of Halley in circulation of 120 copies. Thus, interest in the comets laid the foundations of modern mathematical physics. In his classical treatise, Newton formulated the laws of gravity and movement. However, his work on the theory of motion comet has not yet been completed. Although he suspected that two comets that were observed in 1680 and 1681 were actually one comet before and after passing near the sun, he could not fully describe her movement in his model. It managed to his friend and the Publisher Halley, who in the work of 1705 "Overview of Comet Astronomy" used Newton's laws to take into account the gravitational influence on the comet of Jupiter and Saturn.
Memorial plate dedicated to Edmund Galleu in Westminster Abbey in London
After studying historical records, Gales was the first catalog of the elements of the orbits Comet and drew attention to the coincidence of comets 1531, 1607 and 1682, and suggested that this is the same comet arguing around the Sun with a period of 75-76 years. Based on the detected period and taking into account coarse approximations big planetsHe predicted the return of this comet in 1758.
Halley's prediction was confirmed, although the comet could not find until December 25, 1758, when she noticed by the German peasant and an astronomer of I. Palich. Through the perigeli comet passed only on March 13, 1759, since the perturbations caused by the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn led to a delay of 618 days. Two months before the new advent of comet, this delay was made by A. Clero, who helped in the calculations of J. Laland and Madame N.-R. Lepot. The error of calculations was only 31 days. Galley did not live to return comet, he died in 1742. Confirmation of comet return was the first demonstration of the fact that not only the planets can contact around the sun. This was the first successful confirmation of Newton's heavenly mechanics and a clear demonstration of her predictive strength. In honor of Halley Comet for the first time called French astronomer N. Lakail in 1759.
Options orbit
Animation of the Movement of the Comet Halley in Orbit
The arrival period of comet Gallei over the past three centuries was from 75 to 76 years, but for the entire observation time from 240 g. e. It changed in broader limits - from 74 to 79 years. Variations of periods and orbital elements are associated with the gravitational influence of large planets, whose comet flies. Comet is drawn by a strongly elongated elliptical orbit with an eccentricity of 0.967. With its last return, there was a distance of 0.587 a in the perihelion. e. And the distance in Aflia has more than 35 a. E .. The comet orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic by 162.5 °. Perihelium comet is raised over the plane of the ecliptic by 0.17 a. e. As a result of the large eccentricity orbits, the speed of comet Halley in relation to Earth is one of the largest among all bodies Solar system. In 1910, when we flew past our planet, it was 70.56 km / s. Since the orbit comets gets closer with the earth orbit at two points, generated by comet Gallea dust forms two observed on Earth meteor flux: This aquarides in early May and Orionides in late October.
Comet Halley is classified as a periodic or short-period comet, that is, such, the period of circulation of which is less than 200 years. Comets with a period of circulation of more than 200 years are called long-period. Short-periodic comets have mainly a small inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic and the period of circulation of about 10 years, therefore the orbit of the Khalei comet is somewhat atypical. Short-specific comets with an orbital period of circulation of less than 20 years and an obligation of the orbit of 20-30 degrees or less are called the family of comet of Jupiter. Comet, the orbital period of the appeal, as at Gallet's comet, ranges from 20 to 200 years, and the outerness of the orbit - from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called the comets of Gallevsky type. To date, only 54 comets of Gallevsky type are known, while the number of identified comets of the Jupiter family is about 400.
It is assumed that the comets of Gallevsky type was initially long-period comets, the orbits of which changed under the influence of the gravitational attraction of the planets-giants. If the komet Gallea was before long priorite comet, then it is likely to come from the Oort cloud - a sphere consisting of cometary bodies, sun. at a distance of 20,000-50,000 a. E. At the same time, the family of comet of Jupiter, as it is believed, comes from the belt of the bed - a flat disk of small bodies at a distance from the sun between 30 a. e. and 50 a. e. Another point of view was also offered on the origin of the comet of Gallevsky type. In 2008, a new transneptune object was opened with a retrograde orbit, similar to the orbit of Gallei comet, which received the designation 2008 KV 42. Its perigelium is located at a distance of 20 a. e. From the Sun, Aflia - at a distance of 70 a. E .. This object can be a member of a new family of small bodies of the solar system, which can serve as a source of comets of Gallevsky type.
The results of numerical modeling show that Comet Gallea is at the current orbit from 16,000 to 200,000, although the exact numerical integration of the orbit is impossible due to the appearance of instabilities associated with the perturbation of the planets on the interval of more than several dozen revolutions. The comet's movement is also significantly influenced by the rope effects, since when approaching the Sun, it emits sublimating gas jet surface, leading to a reactive return and orbit change. These changes orbit can cause deviations in the time of passage through perigels to four days.
In 1989, Chirikov and Versucheslavov, analyzing the results of calculations of 46 of the appearances of Komet Halley, showed that on a large time, the comet's dynamics is chaotic and unpredictable. At the same time, on the scale of time of the order of hundreds of thousands and millions of years, the behavior of the comet can be described as part of the theory of dynamic chaos. The same approach allows us to obtain simple approximate estimates of the time of the nearest comet through perigels.
The estimated lifetime of comet Halley can be about 10 million years. Recent studies show that it will evaporate or disintegrated by two in several tens of millennia, or will be thrown out of the solar system in several hundred thousand years. For the last 2000-3000 returns of the core of Komet Gallea decreased by weight by 80-90%.
Calculations of past and future advent of comet halce
The history of the research of the orbit of comet Halley is inextricably linked with the development of computational methods in mathematics and heavenly mechanics.
"Having gathered comet observation from everywhere, I compiled a table, the fruit of vast and tedious labor, a small but unscrewing for astronomers."
He noticed the similarity of the orbit of comet of 1682, 1607 and 1531 and published the first faithful prediction of the comet's return.
All with the same periodic comet Halley identified and comet 1456, which was moving between the earth and the Sun retrograde, although due to the lack of observation, he could not determine the parameters of the orbit. These identification made it possible to predict the new appearance of the same comet in 1758, 76 years after the last appearance. The comet really returned, and was discovered by Palley in Christmas on December 25, 1758. An even more accurate prediction of the time of this return comet made Clero with assistants, calculated the outrage caused by comet's movement by Jupiter and Saturn. He determined the moment of passage through the perigelius on April 13 with an estimated error in one month. The good predictions of the next return of 1835 were given Damuazo and Pontoqula, at the same time the ephemerid was designed for the first time, that is, the future path of comets among stars, but at the most accurate, with a mistake of only 4 days, predicted the return of the comet Rosenberger, for this he had to take into account and indignation New-open uranium. The appearance of a comet of 1910, by the method of numerical integration accurately predicted Kauell and Krommelin.
The Identification of the comet of 1456 on the basis of the discovered additional observations was able to confirm the Pingra. Turning to observations recorded in Chinese chronicles, Pingra, among others, also calculated approximate orbits of the Great Comet of 837 and the first comet of 1301, but did not recognize in both Comet Halley.
J.-B. Bio in 1843, already knowing the average comet of Gallei, postponing it back into the past, tried to identify the previous appearance of the Gallea comet among fixed Chinese observations after 65 BC. e. In many cases, he proposed several possible candidates. Based on the similarity of the Bio orbit, the Bio could also identify as a comet of Gallei Comet 989. Using Chinese data Bio, Lamp recognized the Galek Comet in the autumn comet of 1378, comparing with the descriptions calculated based on the well-known elements of the orbit visible path of comet in the sky. Similarly, they identified the observations of the comet of Gallei in 760, 451 and 1301.
In 1850, J. Hind tried to find the past advent of Halley's comet in the European and Chinese chronicles earlier than 1301, as well as Bio, based on the approximate interval between returns about 76.5 years, but checking the compliance of the observations to the famous orbital elements. Of the 18 of its identification until 11 years BC. e. More than half turned out to be, however, erroneous.
The evidence of all appearances is possible only when tracing continuous changes in the comet orbit under the action of perturbations of the planets of the solar system in the past, as was done in the prediction of new appearances. Such an approach was applied for the first time Kauwell and E. K. D. Krommelin, using the approximate integration of the equation of motion back in time, using the variation of the elements. Taking the basis of reliable observations from 1531 to 1910, they suggested that the eccentricity of the orbit and its inclination remain permanent, and the perihelial distance and the longitude of the ascending node are continuously changing under the action of perturbations. The first orders of perturbations of the comet period were calculated taking into account the actions of Venus, land, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Comet's movement was able to accurately trace up to 1301 and with less accuracy of 239 to N. e.
The error of their method in assessing the moment of passage through the perigelium for the earliest appearance reached 1.5 years, and therefore they used in the article by date on May 15, 240 BC. e. The following from observations, not calculated.
The moments of passing the comet Halley through the perigelius further tried to calculate back from 451 years. e. until 622 BC e. Russian Astronomer M. A. Villaev. Using the moments of the passage of Villeva at the interval of 451 years. e. until 622 BC e. And the results of Kauell and Krommelin for the period from 530 to 1910, M. M. Kamensky picked up the Fourier interpolation series for orbital periods. Although this formula corresponded to the data used to obtain it, its extrapolation beyond the limits of the source data area is useless. As well as a similar analysis of Angstroma gave an error in predicting passing through the perigelius in 1910 by 2.8 years, the prediction of the Kamensky next return erroneously for nine months. Any attempts to find simple empirical formulas to identify past or predictions of the future appearances of comets that do not take into account the dynamic model of the comet's movement under the action of gravitational perturbations do not make sense.
On the eve of the new appearance of the Gallea comet in 1986, studies of its past appearances were intensified:
- In 1967, Joseph Breidi and Edna Carpenter, on the basis of 2000 observations of the two previous appearances of the Gallei comet identified her preliminary orbit and calculated that the upcoming passage of the pergelion would be on February 4, 1986.
- In 1971, the same authors on the basis of about 5,000 telescopic observations of the four previous appearances were able to associate four of these emergence of numerical integration, taking into account the poisonous forces in the form of a century-old member, and predicted the passage time in 1986 with an accuracy of about 1.5 hours. They also applied direct numerical integration for the first time to study the ancient appeals of the Gallet Comet, using the empirical century-old member in the comet's movement equations for taking into account the editorial effects. The comet orbit calculated by the last four appearances was then numerically integrated back to the past 87 BC. e. The moments of passage through the perigelium were satisfactorily agreed with the data of the observations given by Kiang in the work of 1971 from 1682 to 218. However, further integration led to a noticeable discrepancy, starting from the appearance of 141 years. In 141, the real comet passed at a distance of 0.17 a. e. From the Earth and experienced a perturbation somewhat different from what happened in the calculations. Since the integration was not linked to observations earlier than 1682, a small difference between the calculated and real movement was strengthened by close passage near the Earth in 141. In 1982, Brady clarified these calculations.
- In 1971, Tao Kiang, re-analyzing all the well-known European and Chinese past observations, used the method of variation of elements to study the movement of the comet of Gallei from 1682 to reverse to 240 BC. e. Taking into account the influence on the orbital elements of the perturbations of all planets, Kiang was able to clarify the meanings of the passage through the perihelium and confirmed the assumption that the raising forces are responsible for the slowdown in the Middle Movement of the comet slightly more than 4 days in one period of circulation. These storage facilities are associated with the evaporation of a cometic substance when passing around the Sun, accompanied by a reactive impact and a decrease in the mass of the kernel.
- In 1973, Brian Marsden, Hendek Sekanin and Donald Emans developed a model of the robe forces based on the reactive action of gases evaporating from the surface of the comet's nucleus.
- In 1977, Emans used this model for a successful description of comet observations on the interval from 1607 to 1911. Orbit, based on observations of 1682, 1759 and 1835-1836, was integrated back in time until 837 years. Due to the close approach of comet to Earth in 837, they did not attempt to continue the calculation of the previous time.
- In 1981, Donald Emans and Tao Kiang, on the basis of observations of 1759, 1682 and 1607, the method of numerical integration was calculated by the history of the comet of Gallei in the past until 1404 to N. E., Introducing small empirical amendments using very precisely determined from the historical chronicle of the transmission of perihelium in 837, 374 and 141 years. In addition, on the basis of the observations of 837 years in 800, an amendment to the eccentricity of the orbit was introduced.
- In 1986, Werner Landgraf, using the first observations of the new appearance, integrated the comet movement at the interval from 467 BC. e. for 2580 years e. To calculate the past, he used the only empirical amendment equal to 0.05 days for passing time through the perigels in 837.
- In 1988, Gushevsky Sitar developed a method for numerical integration of the movement of the Galeu comet based on 300 of the best observations received from 1835 to 1987, with uniformly use of passing times through perigels for empirical amendments.
Although direct numerical integration is the only method that allows you to explore the movement of the comet of gallium outside the range of reliable observations, it is necessary to try to link integration with ancient observations. When passing integration through the interval of strong perturbations, due to the close convergence of the comet from Earth and other large planets, it takes special caution in order to clarify the calculated movement using observational data. It was shown that due to the perturbations of the large planets of the orbit of comets on large periods of time is not sustainable, and the initial uncertainties in determining the orbit are exponentially increasing over time when calculating the past or to the future.
It is possible to get around this difficulty in progress in the past, bringing small amendments, based on the individual most reliable and accurate observations. What does not allow, however, to determine with the good accuracy of the times of passes, far away from reliable observations.
The appearance of comet Gallei.
| Observations | Braidi | Emans, Kiang | Landgraf | Sitar |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| - | - | - | 2134/03/28.05 | - |
| - | - | 2061/07/29.31 | 2061/07/28.75 | - |
| 1986/02/09.46 | 1986/02/09.39 | 1986/02/09.66 | 1986/02/09.46 | - |
| 1910/04/20.18 | 1910/04/19.68 | 1910/04/20.18 | 1910/04/20.18 | - |
| 1835/11/16.44 | 1835/11/15.94 | 1835/11/16.44 | 1835/11/16.44 | - |
| 1759/03/13.06 | 1759/03/12.55 | 1759/03/13.06 | 1759/03/13.05 | 1759/03/12.51 |
| 1682/09/15.28 | 1682/09/14.79 | 1682/09/15.28 | 1682/09/15.28 | 1682/09/14.48 |
| 1607/10/27.54 | 1607/10/26.80 | 1607/10/27.54 | 1607/10/27.52 | 1607/10/25.00 |
| 1531/08/25.80 | 1531/08/25.59 | 1531/08/26.23 | 1531/08/26.32 | 1531/08/23.68 |
| 1456/06/09.1 | 1456/06/08.97 | 1456/06/09.63 | 1456/06/09.67 | 1456/06/08.10 |
| 1378/11/09 | 1378/11/10.87 | 1378/11/10.69 | 1378/11/11.05 | 1378/11/9.64 |
| 1301/10/24.53 | 1301/10/26.40 | 1301/10/25.58 | 1301/10/26.00 | 1301/10/25.22 |
| 1222/10/0.8 | 1222/09/29.12 | 1222/09/28.82 | 1222/09/28.81 | 1222/09/29.68 |
| 1145/04/21.25 | 1145/04/17.86 | 1145/04/18.56 | 1145/04/17.96 | 1145/04/20.60 |
| 1066/03/23.5 | 1066/03/19.52 | 1066/03/20.93 | 1066/03/19.80 | 1066/03/22.68 |
| 989/09/08 | 989/09/02.99 | 989/09/5.69 | 989/09/04.04 | 989/09/07.69 |
| 912/07/9.5 | 912/07/16.59 | 912/07/18.67 | 912/07/17.48 | 912/07/19.28 |
| 837/02/28.27 | 837/02/27.88 | 837/02/28.27 | 837/02/28.48 | 837/02/28.31 |
| 760/05/22.5 | 760/05/21.78 | 760/05/20.67 | 760/05/20.71 | 760/05/20.53 |
| 684/09/28.5 | 684/10/6.73 | 684/10/02.77 | 684/10/02.16 | 684/10/02.47 |
| 607/03/12.5 | 607/03/18.20 | 607/03/15.48 | 607/03/14.77 | 607/03/15.04 |
| 530/09/26.7 | 530/09/26.89 | 530/09/27.13 | 530/09/26.57 | 530/09/27.31 |
| 451/06/24.5 | 451/06/25.79 | 451/06/28.25 | 451/06/27.84 | 451/06/27.96 |
| 374/02/17.4 | 374/02/12.56 | 374/02/16.34 | 374/02/15.87 | 374/02/15.35 |
| 295/04/20.5 | 295/04/22.54 | 295/04/20.40 | 295/04/20.53 | 295/04/20.02 |
| 218/05/17.5 | 218/05/27.56 | 218/05/17.72 | 218/05/17.38 | 218/05/17.76 |
| 141/03/22.35 | 141/04/10.24 | 141/03/22.43 | 141/03/21.33 | 141/03/22.53 |
| 66/01/26.5 | 66/02/19.97 | 66/01/25.96 | 66/01/23.28 | 66/01/25.57 |
| ?11/10/05.5 | ?11/10/08.64 | ?11/10/10.85 | ?11/10/08.21 | ?11/10/08.92 |
| ?86/08/02.5 | ?86/07/10.40 | ?86/08/06.46 | ?86/08/05.49 | ?86/08/03.41 |
| ?163/10/5.5 | ?163/06/22.38 | ?163/11/12.57 | ?163/11/08.29 | ?163/10/23.13 |
| ?239/03/30.5 | ?240/11/30.64 | ?239/05/25.12 | ?239/05/24.42 | ?239/03/22.55 |
| - | ?316/10/15.78 | ?314/09/08.52 | ?314/09/09.00 | ?314/02/13.31 |
| - | ?392/04/22.19 | ?390/09/14.37 | ?390/09/15.17 | ?391/12/15.22 |
| ?466? | ?467/07/16.05 | ?465/07/18.24 | ?465/07/17.90 | ?466/12/2.00 |
| - | ?543/04/10.57 | ?539/05/10.83 | - | ?542/04/13.94 |
| ?612? | ?619/10/5.17 | ?615/07/28.50 | - | ?619/10/16.14 |
Years before e. The table shows the Astronomical Account: 1 year BC. e. \u003d 0 year, 2 year BC e. \u003d? 1 year, etc. The dates of passing perihelium for 1607 and later are given in the Gregorian calendar, and all previous dates - according to the Julian calendar.
Core comet
The mission of the spacecraft "Vega" and "Jotto" allowed scientists for the first time to learn about the structure of the Surface of the Gallet Comet. As with all the other comets, when approaching the Sun, the volatiles with a small boiling point, such as water, monoxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen, and possibly other frozen gases begin to be sublimated from its kernel. This process leads to the formation of a coma that can achieve 100,000 km in the diameter. The evaporation of this dirty ice releases dust particles that belong to the gas from the nucleus. Gas molecules in a coma are absorbed by sunlight and re-emit it on different wavelengths, and dust particles dispel sunlight in different directions without changing the wavelength. Both of these processes lead to the fact that the coma becomes visible for a third-party observer.
The effect of solar radiation to whom leads to the formation of the tail of the comet. But here, dust and gas behave differently. The ultraviolet radiation of the Sun ionizes a part of the gases molecules, and the pressure of the solar wind, which is a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pushes ions, pulling out to a long tail Comet, which can have a length of more than 100 million kilometers. Changes in the stream of solar wind can even lead to the observed rapid changes in the type of tail and even a complete or partial cliff. The ions accelerate the solar wind to the speeds in dozens and hundreds of kilometers per second, many large than the rate of orbital comet. Therefore, their movement is directed almost exactly in the direction of the Sun, as well as the tail I tail formable. Ion tails have a blossomed glowing fluorescence. On comet dust, the solar wind almost does not act, it pushes the pressure of sunlight from the coma. The dust accelerates the light is much weaker than the ions by the solar wind, so its movement is determined by the initial orbital speed and acceleration under the action of light pressure. Dust is lagging behind the ion tail and forms curved tails II or III tails in the direction of the orbit. Type II tails are formed by a uniform flow of dust from the surface. Type III types are the result of a short-term emission of a large dust cloud. Due to the scattering of accelerations purchased by dusting of different sizes under the action of the pressure of the light pressure, the initial cloud is also stretched into the tail, usually curved even stronger than the tail II tail. Dust tails are glowing with scattered reddish light. Halley's comet had tails both the I and II types. Tail III type was allegedly observed in 1835. In the photo 1986, painted tails I and II types are clearly visible.
Despite the huge size of the coma, the core of the Komet Halley relatively little and has the wrong form of potatoes with dimensions 15? 8? 8 km. Its mass is also relatively small, about 2.2? 10 kg, with an average density of about 600 kg / m?, What probably means that the core consists of a large number of poorly related fragments that form a pile of debris. Ground observations of the coma brightness show that the Sideric period of Appeal of the Gallea comet is about 7.4 days, but the images obtained by various spacecraft, as well as observations of streams and the shell indicate that the period is 52 hours. Since the core comet has irregular shapeHis rotation is also probably quite difficult. Although during space missions, detailed images were obtained only about 25% of the Kernel of the Kaeta Gallea nucleus, they indicate an extremely difficult topography with hills, depressions, mountain ranges and at least one crater.
Comet Gallet is the most active of all periodic comets. Activity, for example, comet Enk or Kholmes comet, one or two orders of magnitude weaker. The daily side of the Galeu Comet is significantly more active than the night side. Studies with the help of spacecraft showed that gases emitted by the kernel, almost 80% consist of water vapor, by 17% of carbon monoxide and 3-4% of carbon dioxide, with methane traces, although more modern studies have shown only 10% Carbon monoxide and traces of methane and ammonia. It turned out that dust particles are mainly a mixture of carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen compounds, ordinary outside the solar system, and silicates that form the basis of earth rocks. Dust particles have small sizes, up to the detection limit to the devices. The ratio of deuterium and hydrogen in a water pair, released from the nucleus surface, was first assumed similar to what was observed in the World Ocean on Earth, which could mean that the comet of the same type as the Gallea comet could provide land in a distant past. However, subsequent observations showed that the deuterium content in the cometic core is much higher than in earthly water, which makes the hypothesis about the cometic origin of earthly water unlikely.
The Jotto apparatus provided the first testimony in favor of the Whipple hypothesis that the Keta Comets are "dirty snowballs". Wipple suggested that comets are ice objects, which are heated when approaching the Sun, leads to the sublimation of ice on the surface, while the jets of volatile substances are flying out in all directions, forming anyone. "Jotto" showed that this model is generally true, although requires a number of amendments. For example, Albedo Galeu Comet is only about 4%, which means that it reflects only 4% of the light falling on it. Such a small reflection can be expected rather from a piece of coal than from the snow. Therefore, despite the fact that the observers from the land of Comet Gallet seems a dazzling-white, its core is actually coal-black. The surface temperature of the evaporating "black ice" would have to vary in the range from 170 K with a high albedo, up to 220 K with a low albedo, however, the measurements of the VEGA-1 apparatus showed that the surface temperature of the Khalei comet is actually within 300- 400 K. This suggests that only 10 percent of the nucleus surface are active, and that most of it is covered with a layer of dark dust, which absorbs heat. All these observations show that Kallei's comet mainly consists of non-volatile materials, and therefore rather represents a "lump of dirt with snow" than the "dirty snowball".
History of observation
Surveillance comet Gallea in antiquity
The first page "Shi JI"
Comet Halley is the first famous periodic comet. It was observed at least 30 times. Information about its earliest appearances can be found in the historical chronicles of different nations. Even in the Middle Ages in Europe and in China began to draw up catalogs of past observations of comets, which are called cometographic. Cometographics turned out to be very useful in identifying periodic comets. The most complete modern catalog is the fundamental fivetomy "cometography" Harry Kronka, which can serve as a guide to the historical appearances of the Gallea comet.
240 years BC e. - The first reliable observation of the comet refers to 240 BC. e. And is located in the Chinese Annals "Shi Ji".
This year, the buggy star first appeared in the eastern direction; It was then visible in the northern direction. From May 24 to June 23, she was visible in the western direction ... The blizzard star was again visible in the western direction of 16 days.
At this year, the buggy star was visible in the northern direction, and then in the west direction. In the summer, a widowing empress died.
Earlier testimonies cannot be unequivocally identified with Gallet's comet. However, it should be noted that in general earlier 240 years BC. e. While only 16 records are discovered different comets. In addition, the conditions of observation of comet Halley earlier than 315 BC. e. were unfavorable - she passed away from the ground.
Babylonian astronomical plate telling about the appearance of the Gallea comet in 164 BC. e.
164 year BC e. - In 1985, F. R. Stephenson published data discovered on the Babylonian signs on comet observations. In the Babylonian clay clinox signs, in particular, the results of extensive centuries-old motion observations of the planets and other celestial events - comets, meteors, atmospheric phenomena are recorded. These are the so-called "Astronomical Diaries", covering the period from about 750 BC. e. On 70 g. e. Most of the "astronomical diaries" are now stored in the British Museum.
LBAT 380: Comet, previously appeared in the east on the way, in the field of Pleiad and Taurus, to the West and passed along the EA path.
LBAT 378: EA in the area of \u200b\u200bSagittarius, at the distance of one elbow ahead of Jupiter, three elbows above north
These signs indicate the same event, and partially the data in them intersect and duplicate. Square brackets indicate damage. The date and path of the comet in the sky are very well agreed with theoretical calculations. On the same signs, detailed data on the positions of the planets are given, which makes it possible to accurately determine that the month of the comet's pass began on October 21, 164 BC. e.
Perhaps this comet played an important role in Middle Eastern history. In the third books of Siville, "based on the middle of the II century to N. er, reported comet in the West, which will be a "sign of a sword, hunger, death and fall of leaders and great people." And just at the end of 164 BC. e. The death of Ptolemy VII and excitement in the empire of Ptolemyev and the death of Antioch IV in the Empire of Seleucidov. Perhaps this comet reflected in the Bible, in the first and second books of Maccabeev and in 9-12 chapters of the book of the Prophet Daniel, describing the events of this time. K. D. Blunt involves several instructions on this appearance, in particular, in the second book McCaveev: "It happened that almost fortunate days over the entire city were in the air wearing riders in gold clothes and like warriors armed with spears ..."
87 years BC e. - On the Babylonian signs also discovered the descriptions of the advent of the comet on August 12, 87 BC. e.
"13 The interval between the sunset and the sunrise was measured at 8 degrees; In the first part of the night, comet which in the IV month day after day, one unit between the north and the west, its tail 4 units "
Although comet's description is damaged and therefore contains little astronomical information about the path, the position of the planets further in the text also allows us to date this appearance. This appearance could be reflected on the coins of the Armenian king Tigran of the Great, the crown of which, decorate the "star with a curved tail".
Fresco "Welcome Magi" Jotto Di Bondone
12 year BC e. - Descriptions of this appearance differ in great detail. In the astronomical chapters of the Chinese chronicle "Hou Hanshi", the path in the sky among Chinese constellations is described in detail with the bright stars closest to the trajectory. Dion Cassius reports the observation of comet within a few days Rome. Some Roman authors argue that the comet forecast the death of the commander Agrippa.
This comet could serve as a prototype for the Bethlehem Star.
66 year - information about this appearance of a comet with an indication of its path in the sky is preserved only in the Chinese chronicle "Hou Hanshi". However, sometimes the message of Joseph Flavia in the Book "Jewish War" is associated with him about a comet in the form of a sword, which preceded the destruction of Jerusalem.
141 years - this appearance was also reflected only in Chinese sources: in detail in Hou Hanshu, less in some other chronicles.
218 - the comet's path is described in detail in the astronomical chapters of the Chronicle "Hou Hanshi". Probably, the Kassius Dion's overthrow of the Roman emperor Macrina knitted with this comet.
295 - About Comet is reported in the astronomical chapters of Chinese dynasty stories "Book Sun" and "Chen Book".
374 - the appearance is described in the annals and astronomical chapters of the "Book Sun" and "Chen Books". Comet approached the Earth only 0.09 a. e.
451 year - the appearance is described in several Chinese chronicles. In Europe, the comet was observed during the invasion of Attila and was perceived as a sign of future wars, described in the chronicles of the idiot and Isidore of Seville.
Comet Halley in the Middle Ages
530 - the appearance is described in detail in the Chinese Dynasty "Book of Wei" and in a number of Byzantine Chronicles. John Malala reports:
At the same reign appeared in the West, the big star, which inspires the horror of the star, from which the white beam was walked and born with a zipper. Some called her torch. She shone twenty days, and was drought, in cities - killing citizens and many other terrible events
607 - the appearance is described in Chinese chronicles and in the Italian chronicle Pavel Diacon: "Then, also in April and May, a star appeared in the sky, which was called Comet." Although Chinese texts lead the comet's path in the sky in accordance with modern astronomical calculations, confusion and discrepancy with the calculation of about a month, probably, are found in the reported dates, probably with chronistic errors. For previous and subsequent appearances there is no such discrepancy.
684 is a bright appearance caused fear in Europe. According to the Nuremberg Chronicle, this "tailed star" was responsible for the continuous rainfall for the three months, who destroyed the harvest, accompanied by strong zippers who killed many people and livestock. The path of comet in the sky is described in the astronomical chapters of Chinese dynastic stories "Tang Book" and "Initial History Tan". Records about observations in Japan, Armenia and Syria are also preserved.
760 - Chinese dynasty chronicles "Book Tan" "Initial History Tang" and "New Tang Book" lead almost the same details about the comet path, which was observed for more than 50 days. The comet is reported in the Byzantine "chronography" of Feofan and in Arab sources.
837 - During this appearance, the Gallei comet approached the minimum surveillance distance to the Earth. The path and view of the comet is described in detail in the astronomical chapters of Chinese dynastic stories "Tang Book" and "New Tang Book". Visible in the sky the length of a split tail at the maximum exceeded 80 °. Comet is also described in Japanese, Arab and in many European chronicles. The interpretation of its appearance for the Emperor of the Franksky state of Louis I pious, as well as the descriptions in the text of many other astronomical phenomena anonymous author of the writings "The Life of Emperor Louis" allowed historians to give the author to the Astronomer's conditional name.
912 - descriptions of this appearance are preserved in the sources of China, Japan, Byzantium, Russia, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, France, England, Ireland, Egypt and Iraq. Byzantine historian X century Simeon logo writes that the comet had the kind of sword.
989 - a comet is described in detail in the astronomical chapters of the Chinese dynasty "History Sun", marked in Japan, Korea, Egypt, Byzantium and in many European chronicles, where the comet is often associated with the subsequent epidemic of the plague.
The appearance of a comet is 1066 years old. Fragment of carpet from Bayeo, OK. 1070
1066 - the comet approached the ground at a distance of 0.1 a. e. She was observed in China, Korea, Japan, Byzantium, Armenia, Egypt, in the Arab East and Rus. In Europe, this appearance is one of the most mentioned in the chronicles. In England, the advent of the comet was interpreted as an omens to the death of King Eduard confessional and the subsequent conquest of England Wilhelm I. Comet is described in many English chronicles and is depicted on the famous carpet from the XI century, depicting the events of this time. Comet may be depicted on a petroglyph located in national Park Chaco, in the US state of New Mexico.
1145 - the advent of the comet is recorded in many chronicles of the West and the East. In England, the Canterbury Monk Edwin sketched a comet in Psaltiri.
1222 - Comet was observed in September and October. Marked in the Chronicles of Korea, China and Japan, in many European monastery annals, Syrian chronicles and in Russian chronicles. There is no historical testimony, but echoing with a message in Russian chronicles that Genghis Khan took this comet as a call to the West campaign.
1301 - Many European chronicles report about Comet, including Russian chronicles. Under the impression of the observation of Jotto Di Bondone, in the form of a comet, the Bethlehem star on the fresco "Wales worship" chapel of the brenor in Padua.
1378 - this appearance was not particularly noteworthy due to adverse observation conditions near the sun. Chinese, Korean and Japanese court astronomers were observed and, possibly in Egypt. In the European chronicles of information about this appearance.
Comet Halley in Russian chronicles
In Russian chronicles, along with the descriptions of many other astronomical phenomena, the advent of Galeu comets are marked. Comet was observed in Russia 1066, 1145, 1222, 1301, 1378, 1531, 1607, 1682, as well as in the chronicles on the basis of the Byzantine chronicles, comet is reported in 912. In addition, after the description of the comet of 1066:
In the same time, the sovereign to the west is the same?, Zda is predic, the lamp of the battlefields of the bat bloody, enter from the evening at sunset? Sunny? MJ and stay for 7 studies. Does it not show the good, atmm a lot of gravestics? Multi and invasion of froths on Russia, si ki zd? Blood acales, manifesting blood shed.
Lavrentievsky chronicle reports even earlier comets, presumably the emergence of comet Gallea in 164 BC. er, 66 and 530 year:
We bo to this mind? Em, the same arms, with anti-zero?, In Jerusalem? Sudden is sudden all over a hail for 40 days to appear on the flush? On horseback rickety, in weapons, the cavities of the immutation of Odezh, and the regions of both are, and the weapon moving; CEE EXPERIFICATE ANTIOHOVO AT JERUSALEM. At night with neron? Cesari in the same Jerusalem? Evia ZDA, on the image of copying, having a lot: Sene manifests themselves to Rati from Romans. And Paki Sita is the same at Ustignan? Cesari, ZVA? Eight ZDA to the West?, I emit a beam, southerly to the name of Blinstanitzia, and the brillboard of the 1990s.
Records on the observation of comet Halley allow you to clarify the dates of some events in Russian history. The appearance of a comet in 989 was not marked in Russian chronicles, nevertheless, comet of 989 is of great interest to Russian history precisely in connection with an attempt to establish the correct chronology of events related to the baptism of Russia and the troops of Kiev Prince Vladimir Corsuni. Disputes on the interpretation of the Byzantine and Eastern certificates of comet and fiery pillars related to the events described, when comparing them with reports of Russian chronicles and Vladimir's lives, which began more than a century, continue until now.
The appearance of the gallome comet in 1222 N. e. Preceded by Tatar-Mongolian invasion. Gustinskaya chronicle reports:
In this l? Then m? Slya May, there is a terrible story? ZDA, sv? True Gle 18 days, the beam for the east? Stretching, others, Zamenova is a new Paguba Christian, Yazh in two l? Tue is the invasion of the enemy, si there is a suitable Tatar, their own countries? Our not knowing.
The appearance of 1378 chronicles also tied up with an important stage in Tatar-Mongolian yoke. Commenting on the appearance of comet Gallei in 1531, the author of the chronographic chronicles, writes: "This was the sign of the Great Dmitry Dmitry Ivanovich Donskom for three years before finding a godless taktamusha to the reigning town of Moscow." In the earlier chronicles of records about the appearance of a comet in 1378, it is not found, however, D. O. Svyatsky believes that the description has fallen into a story "On the captivity and about the commemoration of the Takhtamysh Tsar, and about the Moscow Take", standing in the Novgorod IV Chronicles and in many Other chronicles in Article 1382:
Miscellaneous novcheya, in many ways, is that there is such a banner in the sky: on the enthussts?, Before the early dregs, I have a certain, aki taper, and I am a spear, the named evening zag?, The same thing in the morning, too. Same Znamna showing the evil coming of Takhtamyshvo to the land of land, and the ash of the Tatars naughty on the peasants, Jokes and the mayor of arrivals of God, for the multiplication of gr? Khov ours.
Astronomical observations of the comet in a new time
1456 - this appearance marks the beginning of the comet's astronomical research. She was discovered in China on May 26th. The most valuable observations of the comet made the Italian doctor and astronomer Paolo Toskanelley, who almost every day gently measured its coordinates from June 8 to July 8. Important observations also made Austrian astronomer Georg Purbach, who first tried to measure the Pararallax Comet and found that the comet was from the observer at a distance of "more than a thousand German miles." In 1468, an anonymous treatise "DE COMETA" was written for Roman Pope Paul II, which also presents the results of observations and determining the coordinates of the comet.
1531 - Peter Apian first noticed that the tail of the comet was always directed towards the Sun.
1607 - the comet was observed by Johann Kepler, who decided that the comet was moving through the solar system in a straight line.
1682 - Comet was watched by Edmund Galley. He found the similarity of the orbit comet in 1531, 1607 and 1682, suggested that this is one periodic comet, and predicted the next appearance in 1758. This prediction ridiculously ridiculously in Gullyer travels Jonathan Swift. Scientists in this satirical novel fear, "that a future comet, the appearance of which, according to their calculations, is expected in a thirty-one, in all likelihood, destroy the land ..."
1759 - the first predicted appearance of the Gallea comet. Through the perigels of the comet was March 13, 1759, by 32 days later the prediction of A. Clero. She discovered an astronomer I. Palich at Christmas of 1758. The comet was observed until mid-February 1759 in the evening, then disappeared against the background of the Sun, and from April she became visible on the pre-afraid sky. The comet reached an approximately zero star magnitude and had a tail, stretching at 25 °. It was visible to the unarmed eye until the beginning of June. The last astronomical observations of the comet were made at the end of June.
1835 - since this appearance was predicted not only the date of the passage of comet Gallei Perigelia, but also designed ephemerid, astronomers began to look for a comet with telescopes from December 1834. He discovered the Halley Comet in the form of a weak point on August 6, 1835, director of a small observatory in Rome S. Dumuchel. On August 20 in Derpte, V. Ya. Struve, who after two days later was able to observe the comet with a unarmed look. In October, the comet reached the 1st star magnitude and had a tail with a length of about 20 °. V. Ya. Struve in Derpete with the help of a large refractor and J. Herschel in an expedition at the Cape of Good Hope made many sketches of a comet that constantly changed their appearance. Bessel, also who followed the comet, concluded that its movement had a noticeable influence of the robe reactive forces evaporated from the surface of the gases. On September 17, V. Ya. Struve observed the coating of the star of the comet. Since no change in the stars was registered, it made it possible to conclude about the extreme affairs of the head of the head and the extremely smallness of its central kernel. The comet passed the perieghielium on November 16, 1835, just a day later the prediction of F. Pontoqulana, which allowed him to clarify the mass of Jupiter, making it equal to 1/1049 of the mass of the Sun. J. Herschel watched the comet until May 19, 1836.
Comet Galleya in 1910
1910 - During this appearance, Kallei's comet was first photographed and first obtained spectral data on its composition. The minimum distance from the ground was only 0.15 a. e., And the comet was a bright celestial phenomenon. The comet was discovered on the neck of September 11, 1909 on a photoflastic M. Wolf in Heidelberg with a 72-cm reflector telescope equipped with a camera, in the form of an object of 16-17 star magnitude. An even weaker image was later found on a photoflastic obtained on August 28. The comet passed the perieghielium on April 20 and in early May was a bright spectacle on the predestal sky. At this time, Venus passed through the tail of the comet. On May 18, the comet was exactly between the Sun and the Earth, which also plunged into a few hours in cometty tailwhich is always directed from the sun. On the same day, on May 18, the comet was held on the Sun disk. Observations in Moscow were conducted by V. K. Tsevsky and P. K. Sternberg using a refractor with a resolution of 0.2-0.3?, But they could not distinguish the kernel. Since the comet was at a distance of 23 million km, it made it possible to appreciate that its dimensions are less than 20-30 km. The same result was obtained by observations in Athens. The correctness of this assessment was confirmed during the next appearance when the kernel was able to explore from a close distance with spacecraft. In late May - early June 1910, the comet had the 1st star magnitude, and her tail had a length of about 30 °. After May 20, she began to quickly remove, but photographically registered until June 16, 1911.
During numerous studies, about 500 photographs of the head and tail of comets were obtained, about 100 spectrograms. A large number of determinations of the comet provisions specified by its orbit was also fulfilled, which was of great importance when planning the research program with the help of spacecraft on the eve of the next appearance of 1986. On the basis of studies of the outlines of the comet's head with the help of long-phocus astrographs, S. V. Orlov built the theory of the formation of a comet head.
The spectral analysis of the tail of the comets showed that there is a poisonous gas of cyan in its composition and carbon monoxide. Since on May 18, the Earth was to pass through the tail of the comet, this discovery provoked the predictions of the end of the world, panic and an attachment demand for the charlatanian "anti-commercial tablets" and "anti-commercial umbrellas". In fact, as hurried to celebrate many astronomers, the tail of the comet is so resolving that there can be no negative effects on the earth's atmosphere. On May 18, and in the following days a variety of observations and research of the atmosphere were organized, but no effects that could be associated with the action of a comet substance were found.
The famous American writer-humorist Mark Twain in the autobiography in 1909 wrote: "I was on the light in 1835 together with Gallei's comet. She will appear again next year, and I think we will disappear together. If I do not disappear along with the Gallea comet, it will be the greatest disappointment in my life. God, probably, decided: here are two bizarre inexplicable phenomena, they arose together, let them together and disappear. " So it happened: he was born on November 30, 1835, two weeks after passing the perigelium comet, and died on April 21, 1910, the day after the next perihelion.
Studies 1986.
After 1986.
Comet Halley at a distance of 28.06 a. e. from the sun
February 12, 1991 at a distance of 14.4 a. e. Halley's comet suddenly there was a release of a substance that lasted for several months and released a cloud of dust about 300,000 km in the diameter. Comet Halley was last observed on March 6-8, 2003 by three "very large telescopes" ESO in Serro-Paranal, Chile, when her star value was 28.2 and it passed 4/5 distances to the very long-distance point of the orbit. These telescopes observed a comet with a record for a comet of a distance and a star magnitude to work out the methods of finding very dull transneptunun objects. Now astronomers can observe a comet anywhere in its orbit. Comet will reach Afhelia in December 2023, after which it will begin to close with the sun again.
Comet on Ukrainian postage 2006
The next passage of the Gallea comet through perihelium is expected on July 28, 2061, when its location is more convenient for observation than during the passage in 1985-1986, since it will be in the perigelium from the same side from the Sun as the Earth. It is expected that its visible star magnitude will be? 0.3 compared with +2.1 in 1986. September 9, 2060 Comet Halley will be held at a distance of 0.98 a. e. From Jupiter, and then on August 20, 2061, the distance is 0.0543 a. e. To Venus. In 2134, it is expected that the Gallea comet will take place at a distance of 0.09 a. e. from the ground. Its visible value during this appearance will be about? 2.0.
"Tailed stars", so in ancient times they called comets. Translated from the Greek word "comet" means "hairy". And indeed, these cosmic bodies have a long loop or "tail". And he always turns from the Sun, regardless of the trajectory of movement. To blame for this sunny wind, which deflects the loop away from the shone.
Comet Galleya belongs just to the company "Hairy" cosmic tel. It is short-periodic, that is, regularly returns to the Sun less than 200 years. Or rather, it can be contemplated in the night sky every 76 years. But this figure is not absolute. Due to the impact of the planets, the trajectory of movement may vary, and the error due to this is 5 years. The term is quite decent, especially if you look forward to the cosmic beauty.
The last time it was seen in the sky of the Earth in 1986. Prior to that, she pleased earthlings with her beauty in 1910. The next visit is scheduled for 2062. But the capricious traveler may appear a year before or getting five years. What is so famous is the cosmic body, consisting of frozen gas and solid particles in it?
Here, first of all, it should be noted that the ice visits are known to people for more than 2 thousand years. The first of its observation dates back to 240 year BC. E.. It is not possible that someone saw this luminous body before, it was simply not survived about it. After the specified date, it was observed in the sky 30 times. Thus, the fate of the cosmic stranger is inextricably linked with human civilization.
Next, it should be said that this is the first of all comets, in which the elliptical orbit was calculated and the frequency of return to the Mother Earth was determined. Obliged humanity to this english astronomer Edmund Galleju (1656-1742). It was he who amounted to the very first catalog of orbits comet, periodically appearing in the night sky. At the same time, it was observed that in 3 comets of the movement paths completely coincide. Seen these travelers in 1531, 1607 and 1682 years. The Englishman occurred to the idea that this is the same comet. It turns around the sun with a period of 75-76 years.
Based on this Edmund Galeigh suggested that the bright object will appear in the night sky in 1758. Scientist himself did not live to this date, although he lived 85 years. But the rapid traveler saw on December 25, 1758 German astronomer Johann Palich. And by March 1759, this comet had already seen dozens of astronomers. Thus, Halley's predictions were accurately confirmed, and the systematically returning guest called him name in the same 1759.
What is a komet Gallet? Its age lies in the range from 20 to 200 thousand years. Rather, it is not even an age, but movement in an existing orbit. Previously, she could have been different because of the impact of the gravitational forces of the planets and the Sun.
The core of the space traveler in shape resembles potatoes and has a small size. They make up 15 × 8 km. The density is 600 kg / m 3, and the mass reaches 2.2 × 10 14 kg. It consists of a kernel of methane, nitrogen, water, carbon and other cosmic cold gas. Folded particles are inserted into the ice. These are mainly silicates, of which rocks are 95%.
Approaching the luminaries, this huge "Space Snowball" is heated. As a result, the process of evaporation of gases begins. A foggy cloud is formed around the comet, which is called komoy. In diameter it can reach 100 thousand km.
The closer to the Sun, the coma becomes longer. She has a tail, which is stretched several million km. This is due to the fact that the solar wind, knocking out the gas particles from the coma, throws them away back. In addition to the gas tail there is also dust. He dispels the sunlight, so it looks like a long smoky strip in the sky.
The luminous traveler can already be distinguished at a distance of 11 a. e. from shining. It is perfectly seen in the sky, when 2 a remains to the Sun. e. She envelopes a star-breathing star and returns back. Past of the land of Comet Gallea flies at a speed of about 70 km / s. Gradually, as it removes from the star, its light is becoming more dull, and then the shining beauty turns into a romoc of gas and dust and disappears from the field of view. The next appearance has to wait for 70 years. Therefore, astronomers can see the Space Stranger only once in life.
She flies away far away and disappears in the Oort cloud. This is an impermeable cosmic abyss on the edge of the solar system. It is there that comets are born, and then begin to travel between the planets. They rush to the luminaries, enhance it and rushing back. Our heroine is one of them. But in contrast to other cosmic bodies, it is closer and relative to earthlings. After all, more than 2 dozen centuries continues to get acquainted with people.
Alexander Shcherbakov
The appearance of a comet in 1986 was one of the most immature in the history. In February 1986, during the passage of the perihelion, the Earth and Comet Gallei were at the different side of the Sun, which did not allow to observe the comet during the greatest brightness when its tail was maximum. In addition, because of the increased emergence of light pollution since the last emergence due to urbanization, most of the population could not observe the comet. In addition, when in March and April, the comet was bright enough, it was almost not visible in the northern hemisphere of the Earth. The approach of comet Gallei was first recorded by astronomers Jihiutt and Danielson on October 16, 1982 with the help of the 5.1-M Hale Telescope Palomarian Observatory with a CCD Matrix. The first person visually watched Comet during her return of 1986, became an astronomer of Stephen James O'Mara, who was January 24, 1985 from the top mount Mauna Kea With the help of a homemade 60-cm telescope was able to detect a guest, which had a star magnitude of 19.6 at this time. Stephen Edberg (who worked as the coordinator of observations of amateur astronomers in the NASA reactive movement laboratory) and Charles Morris were the first to see the Galeu Comet with a naked look. From 1984 to 1987, two comet observation programs were held: The International Halley Watch International Technical Program (IHW).
The level of development of astronautics by this time gave scientists the opportunity to explore the comet in the immediate vicinity, for which several spacecraft were launched. After the comet, after the end of the Venus study program, the Soviet interplanetary stations "Vega-1" and "Vega-2" were flying (the name of the devices is decoded as "Venus - Galley" and indicates the route of the apparatus and the objectives of its research). "Vega-1" began to transmit images of the Gallet Comet on March 4, 1986 from a distance of 14 million km, it was with the help of this device for the first time in history to see the comet's core. "Vega-1" flew past comet March 6 at a distance of 8879 km. During the span, the spacecraft was exposed to a strong effect of cometary particles at a collision rate of about 78 km / s, as a result of which the power of solar panel fell 45%, but the device retained performance. "Vega-2" flew past comets at a distance of 8045 km on March 9. In total, both devices were transferred to Earth more than 1,500 images. The measurement data of the two Soviet stations were in accordance with the joint research program were used to correct the orbit of the Cosmic Probe of the European Space Agency "Jotto", which was able to take place on March 14, at a distance of 605 km (unfortunately, formerly about 1200 km away, from - A collision with a fragment of a comet failed the "Jotto" camera, and the device lost control). Also, two Japanese apparatus were also made a certain contribution to the study of Galleya's comets: "Suisay" (span on March 8, 150 thousand km) and "Sakigak" (March 10, 7 million km, was used to guide the previous apparatus). Five spacecraft investigating the comet received the informal name "Armada Galleya".
Based on the data collected by the largest Astron's orbital ultraviolet telescope (USSR) when observing the Karlei comet in December 1985, a group of Soviet scientists has developed a cometary coma model. Comet was observed from space also using the International Comet Explorer (International Comery Explorer) (Initially called "International Sun Researcher and Earth 3"), which was removed from Lagrange Lagrange on Heliocentric orbit for a meeting with comet 21p / jacobini - Zinner And Gallet Comet.
Research Comet Gallea was included in the program of two missions of Cosmic Chellenger (STS-51L and STS 61-E [planned for March 1986]), but the challenging catastrophe during the start of the first mission on January 28, 1986 led to the death of the ship and seven astronauts. The space platform for studying the comet "Astro-1", which was to launch the second mission, in connection with the suspension after the catastrophe of the American manned flight program, was removed into orbit only in December 1990 by the Mission of Colombia STS-35.
After 1986.
February 12, 1991 at a distance of 14.4 a. e. Halley's comet suddenly there was a release of a substance that lasted for several months and released a cloud of dust about 300,000 km in the diameter. Comet Halley was last observed on March 6-8, 2003 by three "very large telescopes" ESO in Serro-Paranal, Chile, when her star value was 28.2 and it passed 4/5 distances to the very long-distance point of the orbit. These telescopes observed a comet at a comet distance (28.06 a. E. Or 4200 million km) and a star magnitude to work out methods for finding very dull transneptunun objects. Now astronomers can observe a comet anywhere in its orbit. Comet will reach Afhelia in December 2023, after which it will begin to close with the sun again.
The next passage of the Gallea comet through perihelium is expected on July 28, 2061, when its location is more convenient for observation than during the passage in 1985-1986, since it will be in the perigelium from the same side from the Sun as the Earth. It is expected that its visible star magnitude will be? 0.3 compared with +2.1 in 1986. September 9, 2060 Comet Halley will be held at a distance of 0.98 a. e. From Jupiter, and then on August 20, 2061, the distance is 0.0543 a. e. (8.1 million km) to Venus. In 2134, it is expected that the Gallea comet will take place at a distance of 0.09 a. e. (13.6 million km) from the Earth. Its visible value during this appearance will be about -2.0.
Core comet
The mission of spacecraft "Vega" (USSR) and "Jotto" (European Space Agency) allowed scientists to learn for the first time on the structure of the Surface of the Khalei comet. As with all the other comets, when approaching the Sun, the volatiles with a small boiling point, such as water, monoxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen, and possibly other frozen gases begin to be sublimated from its kernel. This process leads to the formation of a coma that can achieve 100,000 km in the diameter. The evaporation of this dirty ice releases dust particles that belong to the gas from the nucleus. Gas molecules in a coma are absorbed by sunlight and re-erect it on different wavelengths (this phenomenon is called fluorescence), and dust particles dispel sunlight in various directions without changing the wavelength. Both of these processes lead to the fact that the coma becomes visible for a third-party observer.
The effect of solar radiation to whom leads to the formation of the tail of the comet. But here, dust and gas behave differently. The ultraviolet radiation of the Sun is ionized by a part of the gases molecules, and the pressure of the solar wind, which is a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pushes ions, pulling anyone to a long-fashioned comet that can have a length of more than 100 million kilometers. Changes in the stream of solar wind can even lead to the observed rapid changes in the tail of the tail and even a complete or partial cliff (this was observed, for example, at the Halley Comet on June 6 and 7, 1910). The ions accelerate the solar wind to the speeds in dozens and hundreds of kilometers per second, many large than the rate of orbital comet. Therefore, their movement is directed almost exactly in the direction of the Sun, as well as the tail I tail formable. Ion tails have a blossomed glowing fluorescence. On comet dust, the solar wind almost does not act, it pushes the pressure of sunlight from the coma. The dust accelerates the light is much weaker than the ions by the solar wind, so its movement is determined by the initial orbital speed and acceleration under the action of light pressure. Dust is lagging behind the ion tail and forms curved tails II or III tails in the direction of the orbit. Type II tails are formed by a uniform flow of dust from the surface. Type III types are the result of a short-term emission of a large dust cloud. Due to the scattering of accelerations purchased by dusting of different sizes under the action of the pressure of the light pressure, the initial cloud is also stretched into the tail, usually curved even stronger than the tail II tail. Dust tails are glowing with scattered reddish light. Halley's comet had tails both the I and II types. Tail III type was allegedly observed in 1835. In the photograph of 1986, the painted tails I (below) and type II are clearly visible.
Despite the huge size of the coma, the kernel of the car of Gallea relatively little and has an irregular form of potatoes with dimensions of 15.8x8 km. Its mass is also relatively small, about 2.2 · 10 14 kg, with an average density of about 600 kg / m 3, which probably means that the kernel consists of a large number of poorly related fragments that form a pile of debris. Ground observations of the coma brightness show that the Sideric period of Appeal of the Gallea comet is about 7.4 days, but the images obtained by various spacecraft, as well as observations of streams and the shell indicate that the period is 52 hours. Since the comet kernel has an irregular shape, its rotation is also probably quite difficult. Although during space missions, detailed images were obtained only about 25% of the Kernel of the Kaeta Gallea nucleus, they indicate an extremely difficult topography with hills, depressions, mountain ranges and at least one crater.
Comet Gallet is the most active of all periodic comets. Activity, for example, comet Enk or Kholmes comet, one or two orders of magnitude weaker. The daily side of the galeus comet (the side facing the sun) is significantly more active than the night side. Studies with the help of spacecraft showed that gases emitted by the core almost 80% consist of water vapor, by 17% of carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide) and 3-4% of carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide), with methane traces, Although more modern studies have shown only 10% carbon monoxide and also traces of methane and ammonia. It turned out that dust particles are mainly a mixture of carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen (chon) compounds, conventional outside the solar system, and silicates that form the basis of earth rocks. Dust particles have small sizes, up to the detection limit by devices (approximately 1 nm). The ratio of deuterium and hydrogen in a water pair, released from the nucleus surface, was first assumed similar to what was observed in the World Ocean on Earth, which could mean that the comet of the same type as the Gallea comet could provide land in a distant past. However, subsequent observations showed that the deuterium content in the cometic core is much higher than in earthly water, which makes the hypothesis about the cometic origin of earthly water unlikely.
The Jotto apparatus provided the first testimony in favor of the Whipple hypothesis that the Keta Comets are "dirty snowballs". Wipple suggested that comets are ice objects that are heated at the approach to the Sun, which leads to the sublimation of the ice (the direct conversion of the substance from the solid state into the gaseous) on the surface, while the streams of volatile substances are split into all parties, forming anyone. "Jotto" showed that this model is generally true, although requires a number of amendments. For example, Albedo Galeu Comet is only about 4%, which means that it reflects only 4% of the light falling on it. Such a small reflection can be expected rather from a piece of coal than from the snow. Therefore, despite the fact that the observers from the land of Comet Gallet seems a dazzling-white, its core is actually coal-black. The surface temperature of the evaporating "black ice" should vary from 170 K (-1033 ° C) with a high albedo, up to 220 K (-53 ° C) at a low albedo, but the measurements of the VEGA-1 apparatus showed that The surface temperature of the Kallei comet is actually in the range of 300-400 K (+ 30 ... + 130 ° C). This suggests that only 10 percent of the surface of the nucleus are active, and that most of it is covered with a layer of dark dust, which absorbs heat. All these observations show that Kallei's comet mainly consists of non-volatile materials, and therefore rather represents a "lump of dirt with snow" than the "dirty snowball".
Comet Halley,the only one of the short-period comet (orbital period is approx. 76 years old), easily accessible to surveillance with the naked eye.Relatively small kernels comet consisting of ice with plugging of dust particles, approaching the Sun, enveloped a huge atmosphere (coma) from gas and dust with a length of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. Intense solar heating evaporates ice from a comet kernel, throwing gas and dust into the surrounding atmosphere. Then under the pressure of solar photons and high-speed solar particles, this substance flies in the opposite direction from the sun, forming a gas-dust tail comet, reaching a length of millions of kilometers.
In March 1986, not only numerous amateurs of astronomy and professional scientists, but also five international spacecraft observed, but also five international spacecraft ( see also SPACE PROBE). Japanese probes "Sakigak" and "Suisay" observed a huge hydrogen cloud surrounding the comet, and investigated the interaction of the comet with charged parts of the solar wind. Soviet probes "Vega-1 and -2" passed on March 6 and 9 at distances 8 871 and 8,14 km from Comet. The Space Agency "Jotto" probe was held on March 14, 1986 closer than the rest of the comet's nucleus - just 605 km. Television images transferred by European and Soviet probes showed black as a quantity of a comet core. Comparing ground and cosmic observations of gas and dust surrounding the kernel, scientists concluded that it consists of at about 50% from ice, and the rest is dust and other non-volatile substances. The ice consists mainly of water (80%) and carbon monoxide (10%), and the rest is formaldehyde, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and syntic acid. A non-volatile portion, mainly represented by dusty micron-sized, consists of either a stony substance or light hydrocarbons.
Outwardly, the Komet Hallea core is a potato-shaped object with sizes. 14ґ 10ґ 8 km. Its very black bark made of carbon (organic) substance in many places is coated with faults, through which the subcortical substance is visible, consisting mainly of water ice with the plugs of dark dust. Since the core comet revolves around its axis with a period of several days, this ice is evaporated under the influence of sunlight and turns into a gas that, flying out of the kernel, captures dust particles with it. It is this core, similar to a small dirty iceberg, supplied all gas and dust that formed the immense atmosphere and the tail of the comet.
Comet Halley was the first for which it was possible to predict that it would periodically return to the central region of the solar system. Using the mathematical apparatus, developed by I.Nyuton, his colleague E.Gallle (1656-1742) calculated the parameters of the orbit of 24th comets observed by astronomers in the preceding years. It turned out that comets appearing in 1531, 1607 and 1682 had similar orbits. Galley suggested that in reality it is the same object, and predicted that the comet that is now his name will return to the Sun at the end of 1758 or in early 1759. When at the end of 1758, the German astronomy amateur I.Palital found a comet in heaven, This became the triumph of the calculations of Galeu and laid in their foundation of Newton's laws.
On his long path in orbit, Komet Gallea falls under the gravitational attraction of the planets, by which it passes, and approaching the Sun, it feels a weak power from the gases evaporating from its surface. Under the action of these perturbations, the orbital Peride comet may change for several years from one appearance to another. Calculation of the movement of comet Halley in the past allows us to calculate each of its 30 appearances between 240 BC. and 1986. The following two days in the sun are expected on July 28, 2061 and March 27, 2134. The span of comets in 1986 disappointed observers a little, because it did not fit close enough to the ground. Its minimum distance from our planet April 10, 1986 was 63 million km. Unfortunately, during a return to 2061, the comet will not suit the Earth closer than 71 million km. It will happen on July 29, 2061. And the return of 2134 will be more impressive, since Comet May 7, 2134 will be from the ground at a distance of 13.7 million km.