Supersonic aircraft - history of development. The fate of the “supersonic”. Does Russia need a new supersonic passenger aircraft Supersonic passenger aviation
A typical passenger plane flies at a speed of about 900 km/h. A military fighter jet can reach approximately three times the speed. However, modern engineers from the Russian Federation and other countries of the world are actively developing even faster machines - hypersonic aircraft. What are the specifics of the relevant concepts?
Criteria for a hypersonic aircraft
What is a hypersonic aircraft? This is usually understood as a device capable of flying at a speed many times higher than that of sound. Researchers' approaches to determining its specific indicator vary. A common methodology is that an aircraft should be considered hypersonic if it is a multiple of the speed indicators of the fastest modern supersonic vehicles. Which are about 3-4 thousand km/h. That is, a hypersonic aircraft, if you adhere to this methodology, must reach a speed of 6 thousand km/h.
Unmanned and controlled vehicles
The approaches of researchers may also differ in terms of determining the criteria for classifying a particular device as an aircraft. There is a version that only those machines that are controlled by a person can be classified as such. There is a point of view according to which an unmanned vehicle can also be considered an aircraft. Therefore, some analysts classify machines of the type in question into those that are subject to human control and those that function autonomously. Such a division may be justified, since unmanned vehicles can have much more impressive technical characteristics, for example, in terms of overload and speed.
At the same time, many researchers consider hypersonic aircraft as a single concept, for which the key indicator is speed. It doesn’t matter whether a person sits at the helm of the device or the machine is controlled by a robot - the main thing is that the plane is fast enough.
Take off - independently or with outside help?
A common classification of hypersonic aircraft, which is based on classifying them into the category of those that are capable of taking off on their own, or those that require placement on a more powerful carrier - a rocket or a cargo plane. There is a point of view according to which it is right to include mainly those that are capable of taking off independently or with minimal involvement of other types of equipment as devices of the type under consideration. However, those researchers who believe that the main criterion characterizing a hypersonic aircraft, speed, should be paramount in any classification. Whether the aircraft is classified as unmanned, controlled, capable of taking off on its own or with the help of other machines - if the corresponding indicator reaches the above values, then it means that we are talking about a hypersonic aircraft.
Main problems of hypersonic solutions
The concepts of hypersonic solutions are many decades old. Throughout the years of development of the corresponding type of devices, world engineers have been solving a number of significant problems that objectively prevent the production of “hypersonics” from being put into production - similar to organizing the production of turboprop aircraft.
The main difficulty in designing hypersonic aircraft is creating an engine that can be sufficiently energy efficient. Another problem is lining up the necessary apparatus. The fact is that the speed of a hypersonic aircraft in the values that we discussed above implies strong heating of the body due to friction with the atmosphere.
Today we will look at several examples of successful prototypes of aircraft of the corresponding type, the developers of which were able to make significant progress in successfully solving the noted problems. Let us now study the most famous world developments in terms of creating hypersonic aircraft of the type in question.
from Boeing
The fastest hypersonic aircraft in the world, according to some experts, is the American Boeing X-43A. Thus, during testing of this device, it was recorded that it reached speeds exceeding 11 thousand km/h. That is approximately 9.6 times faster
What is especially remarkable about the X-43A hypersonic aircraft? The characteristics of this aircraft are as follows:
The maximum speed recorded in tests is 11,230 km/h;
Wingspan - 1.5 m;
Body length - 3.6 m;
Engine - direct-flow, Supersonic Combustion Ramjet;
Fuel - atmospheric oxygen, hydrogen.
It can be noted that the device in question is one of the most environmentally friendly. The fact is that the fuel used practically does not emit harmful combustion products.
The X-43A hypersonic aircraft was developed jointly by NASA engineers, as well as Orbical Science Corporation and Minocraft. was created about 10 years ago. About $250 million was invested in its development. The conceptual novelty of the aircraft in question is that it was conceived with the aim of testing the latest technology for providing propulsion.
Development from Orbital Science
The Orbital Science company, which, as we noted above, took part in the creation of the X-43A, also managed to create its own hypersonic aircraft - the X-34.
Its top speed is more than 12 thousand km/h. True, during practical tests it was not achieved - moreover, it was not possible to achieve the indicator shown by the X43-A aircraft. The aircraft in question is accelerated when the Pegasus rocket, which operates on solid fuel, is activated. The X-34 was first tested in 2001. The aircraft in question is significantly larger than the Boeing aircraft - its length is 17.78 m, its wingspan is 8.85 m. The maximum flight altitude of the hypersonic vehicle from Orbical Science is 75 kilometers.
Aircraft from North American
Another famous hypersonic aircraft is the X-15, produced by North American. Analysts classify this apparatus as experimental.
It is equipped, which gives some experts a reason not to classify it, in fact, as an aircraft. However, the presence of rocket engines allows the device, in particular, to perform So, during one of the tests in this mode, it was tested by pilots. The purpose of the X-15 device is to study the specifics of hypersonic flights, evaluate certain design solutions, new materials, and control features of such machines in various layers of the atmosphere. It is noteworthy that it was approved back in 1954. The X-15 flies at a speed of more than 7 thousand km/hour. Its flight range is more than 500 km, its altitude exceeds 100 km.
The fastest production aircraft
The hypersonic vehicles we studied above actually belong to the research category. It will be useful to consider some production models of aircraft that are close in characteristics to hypersonic ones or are (according to one methodology or another) hypersonic ones.
Among such machines is the American development of the SR-71. Some researchers are not inclined to classify this aircraft as hypersonic, since its maximum speed is about 3.7 thousand km/h. Among its most notable characteristics is its take-off weight, which exceeds 77 tons. The length of the device is more than 23 m, the wingspan is more than 13 m.
The Russian MiG-25 is considered one of the fastest military aircraft. The device can reach speeds of more than 3.3 thousand km/h. The maximum take-off weight of a Russian aircraft is 41 tons.
Thus, in the market for serial solutions with characteristics close to hypersonic ones, the Russian Federation is among the leaders. But what can be said about Russian developments regarding “classic” hypersonic aircraft? Are engineers from the Russian Federation capable of creating a solution that is competitive with machines from Boeing and Orbital Scence?
Russian hypersonic vehicles
IN this moment Russian hypersonic aircraft is under development. But it is going quite actively. We are talking about the Yu-71 aircraft. Its first tests, judging by media reports, were carried out in February 2015 near Orenburg.
It is assumed that the aircraft will be used for military purposes. Thus, a hypersonic vehicle will be able, if necessary, to deliver destructive weapons over considerable distances, monitor the territory, and also be used as an element of attack aircraft. Some researchers believe that in 2020-2025. The Strategic Missile Forces will receive about 20 aircraft of the corresponding type.
There is information in the media that the Russian hypersonic aircraft in question will be mounted on the Sarmat ballistic missile, which is also at the design stage. Some analysts believe that the Yu-71 hypersonic vehicle being developed is nothing more than a warhead that will have to be separated from the ballistic missile at the final stage of flight and then, thanks to the high maneuverability characteristic of the aircraft, overcome missile defense systems.
Project "Ajax"
Among the most notable projects related to the development of hypersonic aircraft is Ajax. Let's study it in more detail. The Ajax hypersonic aircraft is a conceptual development of Soviet engineers. In the scientific community, conversations about it began back in the 80s. Among the most notable characteristics is the presence of a thermal protection system, which is designed to protect the case from overheating. Thus, the developers of the Ajax apparatus proposed a solution to one of the “hypersonic” problems we identified above.
The traditional thermal protection scheme for aircraft involves placing special materials on the body. The Ajax developers proposed a different concept, according to which it was supposed not to protect the device from external heat, but to let heat inside the machine, while simultaneously increasing its energy resource. The main competitor of the Soviet aircraft was considered the hypersonic aircraft “Aurora”, created in the USA. However, due to the fact that designers from the USSR significantly expanded the capabilities of the concept, the new development was assigned a wide range of tasks, in particular research ones. We can say that the Ajax is a hypersonic multi-purpose aircraft.
Let's take a closer look at the technological innovations proposed by engineers from the USSR.
So, the Soviet developers of Ajax proposed using the heat generated as a result of friction of the aircraft body with the atmosphere and converting it into useful energy. Technically, this could be realized by placing additional shells on the device. As a result, something like a second corps was formed. Its cavity was supposed to be filled with some kind of catalyst, for example, a mixture of flammable material and water. The heat-insulating layer made of solid material in Ajax was supposed to be replaced with a liquid one, which, on the one hand, was supposed to protect the engine, on the other, would promote a catalytic reaction, which, meanwhile, could be accompanied by an endothermic effect - the movement of heat from the outside body parts inward. Theoretically, the cooling of the external parts of the device could be anything. The excess heat, in turn, was supposed to be used to increase the efficiency of the aircraft engine. At the same time, this technology would make it possible to generate free hydrogen as a result of the reaction of the fuel.
At the moment, there is no information available to the general public about the continuation of the development of Ajax, however, researchers consider the implementation of Soviet concepts into practice to be very promising.
Chinese hypersonic vehicles
China is becoming a competitor to Russia and the United States in the hypersonic solutions market. Among the most famous developments of engineers from China is the WU-14 aircraft. It is a hypersonic controlled glider mounted on a ballistic missile.
An ICBM launches an aircraft into space, from where the vehicle sharply dives down, developing hypersonic speed. The Chinese device can be mounted on various ICBMs with a range from 2 to 12 thousand km. It was found that during tests, the WU-14 was able to reach a speed exceeding 12 thousand km/h, thus becoming the fastest hypersonic aircraft according to some analysts.
At the same time, many researchers believe that it is not entirely legitimate to classify the Chinese development as an aircraft. Thus, there is a widespread version according to which the device should be classified specifically as a warhead. And very effective. When flying downward at the specified speed, even the most modern missile defense systems will not be able to guarantee interception of the corresponding target.
It can be noted that Russia and the United States are also developing hypersonic vehicles used for military purposes. At the same time, the Russian concept, according to which it is supposed to create machines of the appropriate type, differs significantly, as evidenced by data in some media, from the technological principles implemented by the Americans and the Chinese. Thus, developers from the Russian Federation are concentrating their efforts in the field of creating aircraft equipped with a ramjet engine that can be launched from the ground. Russia plans to cooperate in this direction with India. Hypersonic vehicles created according to the Russian concept, according to some analysts, are characterized by lower cost and a wider range of applications.
At the same time, the Russian hypersonic aircraft, which we mentioned above (Yu-71), suggests, as some analysts believe, deployment on ICBMs. If this thesis turns out to be correct, then we can say that engineers from the Russian Federation are working simultaneously in two popular conceptual directions in the construction of hypersonic aircraft.
Summary
So, probably the fastest hypersonic aircraft in the world, if we talk about aircraft regardless of their classification, is still the Chinese WU-14. Although you need to understand that real information about it, including those related to tests, may be classified. This is quite consistent with the principles of Chinese developers, who often strive to keep their military technologies secret at all costs. The speed of the fastest hypersonic aircraft is more than 12 thousand km/h. The American development of the X-43A is “catching up” with it - many experts consider it to be the fastest. Theoretically, the hypersonic aircraft X-43A, as well as the Chinese WU-14, can catch up with the development from Orbical Science, designed for a speed of more than 12 thousand km/h.
The characteristics of the Russian Yu-71 aircraft are not yet known to the general public. It is quite possible that they will be close to the parameters of the Chinese aircraft. Russian engineers are also developing a hypersonic aircraft capable of taking off independently, rather than based on an ICBM.
Current projects of researchers from Russia, China and the United States are in one way or another related to the military sphere. Hypersonic aircraft, regardless of their possible classification, are considered primarily as carriers of weapons, most likely nuclear. However, in the works of researchers from different countries of the world there are theses that “hypersonic”, like nuclear technologies, may well be peaceful.
The issue is the emergence of affordable and reliable solutions that make it possible to organize mass production of machines of the appropriate type. The use of such devices is possible in the widest range of sectors of economic development. Hypersonic aircraft are likely to find greatest demand in the space and research industries.
As production technologies for the corresponding vehicles become cheaper, transport businesses may begin to show interest in investing in such projects. Industrial corporations and providers of various services may begin to consider “hypersonic” as a tool for increasing business competitiveness in terms of organizing international communications.
Supersonic aircraft are aircraft that are capable of flying at speeds exceeding the speed of sound (Mach number M = 1.2-5).
Story
The advent of jet fighters in the 1940s challenged designers to further increase their speed. The increased speed improved the performance of both bombers and fighters.
The pioneer in the supersonic era was American test pilot Chuck Yeager. On October 14, 1947, while flying an experimental Bell X-1 aircraft with an XLR-11 rocket power plant, he exceeded the speed of sound in controlled flight.
Development
The rapid development of supersonic aviation began in the 60-70s. XX century. Then the problems of aerodynamic efficiency, controllability and stability of aircraft were resolved. The high flight speed also made it possible to increase the service ceiling by more than 20,000 m, which was a comfortable altitude for bombers and reconnaissance aircraft.
Before the advent of anti-aircraft missile launchers and systems that could hit targets at high altitudes, the main principle of bombing operations was to keep bomber aircraft at maximum altitude and speed. Then supersonic aircraft for various purposes were built and put into mass production - reconnaissance bombers, interceptors, fighters, interceptor bombers. The Convair F-102 Delta Dagger was the first supersonic reconnaissance aircraft, and the Convair B-58 Hustler was the first supersonic long-range bomber.
Currently, the design, development and production of new aircraft are being carried out, some of which are produced using a special technology that reduces their radar and visual signature - “Stealth”.
Passenger supersonic aircraft
In the history of aviation, only 2 passenger supersonic aircraft were created that carried out regular flights. First flight Soviet plane Tu-144 took place on December 31, 1968, its operation period was 1975-1978. The Anglo-French Concorde aircraft made its first flight on March 2, 1969 and was operated transatlantic in 1976-2003.
The use of such aircraft made it possible not only to reduce the time of flight over long distances, but also to use unoccupied air lines at high altitudes (about 18 km) at a time when the altitudes of 9-12 km, which the airliners used, were heavily loaded. Also, supersonic aircraft operated off-air routes (on direct routes).
Despite the failure of several transonic and supersonic aircraft(SSBJ, Tu-444, Tu-344, Tu-244, Lockheed L-2000, Boeing Sonic Cruiser, Boeing 2707) and the decommissioning of two completed projects, the development of modern projects of hypersonic airliners (for example SpaceLiner, ZEHST) and landing ( military transport) rapid reaction aircraft. Launched into production supersonic business jet Aerion AS2.
Theoretical issues
Compared to subsonic flight, flight at supersonic speed is carried out according to a different law, because when the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, changes occur in the flow pattern, as a result, the kinetic heating of the device increases, aerodynamic drag increases, and a change in the aerodynamic focus is observed. All this adds up to a deterioration in the controllability and stability of the aircraft. A hitherto unknown phenomenon of wave resistance also appeared.
Therefore, effective flight when reaching the speed of sound requires not only an increase in engine power, but also the introduction of new design solutions.
Therefore, such aircraft received a change in their appearance - sharp corners and characteristic straight lines appeared compared to the “smooth” shape of subsonic aircraft.
To date, the task of creating a truly effective supersonic aircraft has not been solved. The creators are required to find a compromise between maintaining normal takeoff and landing characteristics and the requirement to increase speed.
Therefore, the conquest of new heights and speeds by modern aviation is associated not only with the introduction of new propulsion systems and layout schemes, but also with changes in flight geometry. These changes should improve the aircraft's performance at high speeds without compromising its performance at low speeds, and vice versa. Designers have recently abandoned reducing the area of the wings and the thickness of their profiles, increasing the sweep angle, returning to wings of large relative thickness and low sweep, if they have managed to achieve the requirements of the practical ceiling and speed.
It is important that a supersonic aircraft has good flight performance at low speeds and is resistant to drag at high speeds, especially at surface altitudes.
Aircraft classification:
| A |
| B |
| IN |
| G |
| D |
| AND |
| TO |
| L |
| ABOUT |
| P |
| R |
Aircraft designers were faced with the task of further increasing their speed. Higher speed expanded the combat capabilities of both fighters and bombers.
The supersonic era began with the flight of Chuck Yeager, an American test pilot, on October 14, 1947, on an experimental Bell X-1 aircraft with an XLR-11 rocket engine that reached supersonic speed in controlled flight.
Development
The 60s-70s of the 20th century were marked by the rapid development of supersonic aviation. The main problems of aircraft stability and controllability and their aerodynamic efficiency were solved. The high flight speed also made it possible to increase the ceiling to over 20 km, which was important for reconnaissance aircraft and bombers. At that time, before the advent of anti-aircraft missile systems capable of hitting targets at high altitudes, the main principle of using bombers was to fly to the target at the highest possible altitude and speed. During these years, supersonic aircraft for a wide variety of purposes were built and put into production - fighters, bombers, interceptors, fighter-bombers, reconnaissance aircraft (the first supersonic all-weather interceptor - Convair F-102 Delta Dagger; the first supersonic long-range bomber - Convair B-58 Hustler) .
Nowadays, new aircraft are appearing, including those made using Stealth technology to reduce visibility.
Comparative diagrams of Tu-144 and Concorde
Passenger supersonic aircraft
In the history of aviation, there have only been two passenger supersonic aircraft operating on regular flights. The Soviet Tu-144 aircraft made its first flight on December 31, 1968, and was in operation from 1978 to 1978. Two months later, on March 2, 1969, the Anglo-French Concorde (fr. Concorde- “consent”) made transatlantic flights from 2003 to 2003. Their operation made it possible not only to significantly reduce flight time on long-distance flights, but also to use unloaded air space at high altitude (≈18 km), while the main airspace used by airliners (altitudes 9-12 km) was already significantly congested in those years. Also, supersonic aircraft flew along straight routes (outside air routes).
Theoretical issues
Flight at supersonic speed, in contrast to subsonic speed, proceeds according to different laws, since when an object reaches the speed of sound, the aerodynamic flow pattern changes qualitatively, due to which aerodynamic drag increases sharply, kinetic heating of the structure increases, the aerodynamic focus shifts, which leads to loss of stability and aircraft controllability. In addition, a hitherto unknown phenomenon called “wave resistance” appeared.
Therefore, achieving the speed of sound and efficient flight were impossible by simply increasing engine power; new design solutions were required. The consequence was a change in the appearance of the aircraft - characteristic straight lines and sharp corners appeared, in contrast to the “smooth” shape of subsonic aircraft.
It should be noted that the task of creating an effective supersonic aircraft cannot yet be considered solved. The creators have to make a compromise between the requirement to increase speed and maintain acceptable takeoff and landing characteristics. Thus, the conquest of new frontiers in speed and altitude by aviation is associated not only with the use of a more advanced or fundamentally new propulsion system and a new aircraft layout, but also with changes in their geometry in flight. Such changes, while improving the aircraft's performance at high speeds, should not worsen their performance at low speeds, and vice versa. Recently, creators have been refusing to reduce the wing area and the relative thickness of their profiles, as well as increasing the wing sweep angle of aircraft with variable geometry, returning to low-sweep wings and a large relative thickness, if satisfactory maximum speed and ceiling values have already been achieved. In this case, it is considered important that a supersonic aircraft has good performance at low speeds and reduced drag at high speeds, especially at low altitudes.
Notes
see also
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what a “supersonic aircraft” is in other dictionaries:
Aircraft, design and flight specifications which allows flights at speeds exceeding the speed of sound. Unlike airplanes that fly at subsonic speeds, supersonic airplanes have a swept or triangular (in... ... Encyclopedia of technology
supersonic aircraft- viršgarsinis lėktuvas statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: engl. ultrasonic airplane vok. Überschallflugzeug, n rus. supersonic aircraft, m pranc. avion supersonique, m … Fizikos terminų žodynas
supersonic aircraft Encyclopedia "Aviation"
supersonic aircraft- supersonic aircraft aircraft, the operating conditions of which provide for flight at speeds exceeding the speed of sound. Introduction of the concept "S. With." in the 1950s caused by a significant difference in geometric shapes providing... ... Encyclopedia "Aviation"
It is known that the main paths of aviation development were and are determined mainly by the progress of aircraft for military use, the development of which requires a lot of effort and money. At the same time, civil aviation, for which... ... Wikipedia
Supersonic airliner Tu-144: flight characteristics- On December 31, 1968, the experimental supersonic aircraft Tu 144 (USSR tail number 68001) made its first flight. Tu 144 managed to take off two months earlier than its Anglo-French competitor, the Concorde airliner, which made its first flight on 2... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers
supersonic passenger aircraft- Rice. 1. Supersonic passenger aircraft Tu-144. supersonic passenger aircraft (SPS) is intended for transporting passengers, luggage and cargo at supersonic cruising speed (Mach number M∞ > 1). The first (and... ... Encyclopedia "Aviation"
Tu-144 is a Soviet supersonic aircraft developed by the Tupolev Design Bureau in the 1960s. Along with Concorde, it is one of only two supersonic airliners ever used by airlines for commercial travel.
In the 60s, projects to create a passenger supersonic aircraft with a maximum speed of 2500-3000 km/h and a flight range of at least 6-8 thousand km were actively discussed in aviation circles in the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR. In November 1962, France and Great Britain signed an agreement on the joint development and construction of Concorde (Concord).
Creators of a supersonic aircraft
In the Soviet Union, the design bureau of academician Andrei Tupolev was involved in the creation of a supersonic aircraft. At a preliminary meeting of the Design Bureau in January 1963, Tupolev stated:
“Reflecting on the future of air transportation of people from one continent to another, you come to a clear conclusion: supersonic airliners are undoubtedly needed, and I have no doubt that they will come into use…”
The academician's son, Alexey Tupolev, was appointed as the lead designer of the project. More than a thousand specialists from other organizations worked closely with his design bureau. The creation was preceded by extensive theoretical and experimental work, which included numerous tests in wind tunnels and natural conditions during analogue flights.
Concorde and Tu-144
The developers had to rack their brains to find the optimal design for the machine. The speed of the designed airliner is fundamentally important - 2500 or 3000 km/h. The Americans, having learned that the Concorde is designed for 2500 km/h, announced that just six months later they would release their passenger Boeing 2707, made of steel and titanium. Only these materials could withstand the heating of the structure when in contact with air flow at speeds of 3000 km/h and above without destructive consequences. However, solid steel and titanium structures still have to undergo serious technological and operational testing. This will take a lot of time, and Tupolev decides to build a supersonic aircraft from duralumin, designed for a speed of 2500 km/h. The American Boeing project was subsequently completely closed.
In June 1965, the model was shown at the annual Paris Air Show. Concorde and Tu-144 turned out to be strikingly similar to each other. Soviet designers said - nothing surprising: the general shape is determined by the laws of aerodynamics and the requirements for a certain type of machine.
Supersonic aircraft wing shape
But what should the wing shape be? We settled on a thin delta wing with the front edge shaped like the letter “8”. The tailless design - inevitable with such a design of the load-bearing plane - made the supersonic airliner stable and well controllable in all flight modes. Four engines were located under the fuselage, closer to the axis. The fuel is placed in coffered wing tanks. The trim tanks, located in the rear fuselage and wing swells, are designed to change the position of the center of gravity during the transition from subsonic to supersonic flight speeds. The nose was made sharp and smooth. But how can pilots have forward visibility in this case? They found a solution - the “bowing nose.” The fuselage had a circular cross-section and had a cockpit nose cone that tilted downward at an angle of 12 degrees during takeoff and 17 degrees during landing.
A supersonic plane takes to the skies
The first supersonic aircraft took to the skies on the last day of 1968. The car was flown by test pilot E. Elyan. As a passenger aircraft, it was the first in the world to overcome the speed of sound in early June 1969, at an altitude of 11 kilometers. The supersonic aircraft reached the second speed of sound (2M) in mid-1970, at an altitude of 16.3 kilometers. The supersonic aircraft incorporates many design and technical innovations. Here I would like to note such a solution as the front horizontal tail. When using PGO, flight maneuverability was improved and speed was reduced during landing. The domestic supersonic aircraft could be operated from two dozen airports, while the French-English Concorde, having a high landing speed, could land only at a certified airport. The designers of the Tupolev Design Bureau did a colossal job. Take, for example, full-scale tests of a wing. They took place on a flying laboratory - the MiG-21I, modified specifically for testing the design and equipment of the wing of the future supersonic aircraft.
Development and modification
Work on the development of the basic design of “044” went in two directions: the creation of a new economical afterburning turbojet engine of the RD-36-51 type and a significant improvement in the aerodynamics and design of the supersonic aircraft. The result of this was to meet the requirements for supersonic flight range. The decision of the commission of the USSR Council of Ministers on the version of the supersonic aircraft with the RD-36-51 was made in 1969. At the same time, at the proposal of the MAP - MGA, a decision is made, before the creation of the RD-36-51 and their installation on a supersonic aircraft, on the construction of six supersonic aircraft with NK-144A with reduced specific fuel consumption. The design of serial supersonic aircraft with the NK-144A was supposed to be significantly modernized, significant changes in aerodynamics would be made, obtaining a Kmax of more than 8 in supersonic cruising mode. This modernization was supposed to ensure the fulfillment of the requirements of the first stage in terms of range (4000-4500 km), and in the future it was planned to transition to series on RD-36-51.
Construction of a modernized supersonic aircraft
Construction of the pre-production modernized Tu-144 (“004”) began at MMZ “Experience” in 1968. According to calculated data with NK-144 engines (Cp = 2.01), the estimated supersonic range should have been 3275 km, and with NK-144A (Cp = 1.91) it should have exceeded 3500 km. In order to improve the aerodynamic characteristics in cruising mode M = 2.2, the wing planform was changed (the sweep of the floating part along the leading edge was reduced to 76°, and the base part was increased to 57°), the shape of the wing became closer to “Gothic”. Compared to "044", the wing area has increased, and a more intense conical twist of the wing ends has been introduced. However, the most important innovation in wing aerodynamics was the change in the middle part of the wing, which ensured self-balancing in cruising mode with minimal loss of quality, taking into account optimization of flight deformations of the wing in this mode. The length of the fuselage was increased to accommodate 150 passengers, and the shape of the nose was improved, which also had a positive effect on aerodynamics.
Unlike “044”, each pair of engines in paired engine nacelles with air intakes was moved apart, freeing the lower part of the fuselage from them, unloading it from increased temperature and vibration loads, while changing the lower surface of the wing in the place of the calculated area of flow compression, increasing the gap between the lower surface wing and the upper surface of the air intake - all this made it possible to more intensively use the effect of compressing the flow at the entrance to the air intakes on the Kmax than was possible to achieve on the “044”. The new layout of the engine nacelles required changes to the chassis: the main landing gear was placed under the engine nacelles, with them retracted inside between the air ducts of the engines, they switched to an eight-wheeled trolley, and the scheme for retracting the nose landing gear also changed. An important difference between the “004” and the “044” was the introduction of a front multi-section destabilizer wing retractable in flight, which extended from the fuselage during takeoff and landing modes, and made it possible to provide the required balancing when the elevons-flaps were deflected. Improvements to the design, an increase in payload and fuel reserves led to an increase in take-off weight, which exceeded 190 tons (for “044” - 150 tons).
Pre-production Tu-144
Construction of pre-production supersonic aircraft No. 01-1 (tail No. 77101) was completed at the beginning of 1971, and made its first flight on June 1, 1971. According to the factory test program, the vehicle completed 231 flights, lasting 338 hours, of which 55 hours flew at supersonic speed. This machine was used to work out complex issues regarding the interaction of the power plant in various flight modes. On September 20, 1972, the car flew along the Moscow-Tashkent highway, while the route was covered in 1 hour 50 minutes, the cruising speed during the flight reached 2500 km/h. The pre-production vehicle became the basis for the deployment of serial production at the Voronezh Aviation Plant (VAZ), which, by decision of the government, was entrusted with the development of a supersonic aircraft in a series.
First flight of the production Tu-144
The first flight of serial supersonic aircraft No. 01-2 (tail No. 77102) with NK-144A engines took place on March 20, 1972. In the series, based on the results of tests of the pre-production vehicle, the aerodynamics of the wing were adjusted and its area was once again slightly increased. The take-off weight in the series reached 195 tons. By the time of operational testing of production vehicles, the specific fuel consumption of the NK-144A was intended to be increased to 1.65-1.67 kg/kgf/hour by optimizing the engine nozzle, and subsequently to 1.57 kg/kgf/hour, while the flight range should was increased to 3855-4250 km and 4550 km, respectively. In reality, they were able to achieve by 1977 during testing and development of the Tu-144 and NK-144A series Av = 1.81 kg/kgf hour in cruising supersonic thrust mode 5000 kgf, Av = 1.65 kg/kgf hour in takeoff afterburner thrust mode 20,000 kgf, Av = 0.92 kg/kgf per hour in the cruising subsonic mode of thrust 3000 kgf and in the maximum afterburning mode in the transonic mode we received 11,800 kgf. A fragment of a supersonic aircraft.
Flights and tests of a supersonic aircraft
First stage of testing
In a short period of time, in strict accordance with the program, 395 flights were completed with a total flight time of 739 hours, including more than 430 hours in supersonic modes.
Second stage of testing
At the second stage of operational testing in accordance with the joint order of ministers aviation industry and civil aviation dated September 13, 1977 No. 149-223, there was a more active connection of civil aviation facilities and services. A new testing commission was formed, headed by Deputy Minister of Civil Aviation B.D. Rude. By decision of the commission, then confirmed by a joint order dated September 30 - October 5, 1977, crews were appointed to conduct operational tests:
- First crew: pilots B.F. Kuznetsov (Moscow State Transport Administration), S.T. Agapov (ZhLIiDB), navigator S.P. Khramov (MTU GA), flight engineers Yu.N. Avaev (MTU GA), Yu.T. Seliverstov (ZhLIiDB), leading engineer S.P. Avakimov (ZhLIiDB).
- Second crew: pilots V.P. Voronin (MSU GA), I.K. Vedernikov (ZhLIiDB), navigator A.A. Senyuk (MTU GA), flight engineers E.A. Trebuntsov (MTU GA) and V.V. Solomatin (ZhLIiDB), leading engineer V.V. Isaev (GosNIIGA).
- Third crew: pilots M.S. Kuznetsov (GosNIIGA), G.V. Voronchenko (ZhLIiDB), navigator V.V. Vyazigin (GosNIIGA), flight engineers M.P. Isaev (MTU GA), V.V. Solomatin (ZhLIiDB), leading engineer V.N. Poklad (ZhLIiDB).
- Fourth crew: pilots N.I. Yurskov (GosNIIGA), V.A. Sevankaev (ZhLIiDB), navigator Yu.A. Vasiliev (GosNIIGA), flight engineer V.L. Venediktov (GosNIIGA), leading engineer I.S. Mayboroda (GosNIIGA).
Before the start of testing, a lot of work was done to review all the materials received in order to use them “for credit” for meeting specific requirements. However, despite this, some civil aviation specialists insisted on implementing the “Operational Test Program for Supersonic Aircraft,” developed at GosNIIGA back in 1975 under the leadership of leading engineer A.M. Teteryukov. This program essentially required the repetition of previously completed flights in the amount of 750 flights (1200 flight hours) on MGA routes.
The total volume of operational flights and tests for both stages will be 445 flights with 835 flight hours, of which 475 hours are in supersonic modes. 128 paired flights were performed on the Moscow-Alma-Ata route.
The final stage
The final stage of testing was not stressful from a technical point of view. Rhythmic work according to schedule was ensured without serious failures or major defects. The engineering and technical crews “had fun” by assessing household equipment in preparation for passenger transportation. Flight attendants and relevant specialists from GosNIIGA, who were involved in the tests, began to conduct ground training to develop the technology for servicing passengers in flight. The so-called “pranks” and two technical flights with passengers. The “raffle” was held on October 16, 1977 with a complete simulation of the cycle of ticket check-in, baggage check-in, passenger boarding, flight of actual duration, passenger disembarkation, baggage check-in at the destination airport. There was no end to the “passengers” (the best workers of OKB, ZhLIiDB, GosNIIGA and other organizations). The diet during the “flight” was at the highest level, since it was based on the first class menu, everyone enjoyed it very much. The “raffle” made it possible to clarify many important elements and details of passenger service. On October 20 and 21, 1977, two technical flights were carried out along the Moscow-Alma-Ata highway with passengers. The first passengers were employees of many organizations that were directly involved in the creation and testing of the supersonic aircraft. Today it is even difficult to imagine the atmosphere on board: there was a feeling of joy and pride, great hope for development against the backdrop of first-class service, to which technical people are absolutely not accustomed. On the first flights, all the heads of the parent institutes and organizations were on board.
The road is open for passenger traffic
The technical flights went off without any serious problems and showed that the supersonic aircraft and all ground services were fully prepared for regular transportation. On October 25, 1977, the Minister of Civil Aviation of the USSR B.P. Bugaev and the Minister of Aviation Industry of the USSR V.A. Kazakov approved the main document: “Act on the results of operational tests of a supersonic aircraft with NK-144 engines” with a positive conclusion and conclusions.
Based on the presented tables of compliance of the Tu-144 with the requirements of the Temporary Airworthiness Standards for Civilian Tu-144 of the USSR, the full volume of submitted evidentiary documentation, including acts on state and operational tests, on October 29, 1977, Chairman of the State Aviation Register of the USSR I.K. Mulkijanov approved the conclusion and signed the first airworthiness certificate in the USSR, type No. 03-144, for a supersonic aircraft with NK-144A engines.
The road was open for passenger traffic.
The supersonic aircraft could land and take off at 18 airports in the USSR, while Concorde, whose takeoff and landing speed was 15% higher, required a separate landing certificate for each airport. According to some experts, if the Concorde engines had been placed in the same way as the Tu-144, the accident on July 25, 2000 would not have occurred.
According to experts, the design of the Tu-144 airframe was ideal, but the shortcomings concerned the engines and various systems.
The second production copy of a supersonic aircraft
In June 1973, the 30th International Paris Air Show took place in France. The interest generated by the Soviet Tu-144 airliner, the world's first supersonic aircraft, was enormous. On June 2, thousands of visitors to the air show in the Paris suburb of Le Bourget watched the second production copy of a supersonic aircraft take to the runway. The roar of four engines, a powerful take-off - and now the car is in the air. The sharp nose of the airliner straightened and aimed at the sky. The supersonic Tu, led by Captain Kozlov, made its first demonstration flight over Paris: having gained the required altitude, the car went beyond the horizon, then returned and circled over the airfield. The flight proceeded normally, no technical problems were noted.
The next day, the Soviet crew decided to show everything that the new one was capable of.
Disaster during a demonstration
The sunny morning of June 3 did not seem to foretell trouble. At first everything went according to plan - the audience raised their heads and applauded in unison. The supersonic aircraft, showing the “top class”, began to descend. At that moment, a French Mirage fighter appeared in the air (as it later turned out, it was filming an air show). A collision seemed inevitable. In order not to crash into the airfield and spectators, the crew commander decided to rise higher and pulled the steering wheel towards himself. However, the height had already been lost, creating large loads on the structure; As a result, the right wing cracked and fell off. A fire started there, and a few seconds later the flaming supersonic plane rushed to the ground. A terrible landing occurred on one of the streets of the Parisian suburb of Goussainville. The giant machine, destroying everything in its path, crashed to the ground and exploded. The entire crew - six people - and eight Frenchmen on the ground were killed. Goosenville also suffered - several buildings were destroyed. What led to the tragedy? According to most experts, the cause of the disaster was the attempt of the crew of a supersonic aircraft to avoid a collision with the Mirage. During landing, the Tu was caught in a wake from the French Mirage fighter.
Video: Tu-144 crash in 1973: how it happened
This version is given in Gene Alexander’s book “Russian Airplanes Since 1944” and in an article in Aviation Week and Space Technology magazine for June 11, 1973, written on fresh tracks. The authors believe that pilot Mikhail Kozlov landed on the wrong runway - either due to a mistake by the flight director, or due to the carelessness of the pilots. The controller noticed the error in time and warned the Soviet pilots. But instead of going around, Kozlov made a sharp turn - and found himself right in front of the French Air Force fighter. At that time, the co-pilot was filming a story about the Tu crew for French television with a movie camera and therefore was not wearing a seatbelt. During the maneuver, he fell onto the center console, and while he was returning to his place, he had already lost altitude. Kozlov sharply pulled the steering wheel towards himself - overload: the right wing could not stand it. Here is another explanation for the terrible tragedy. Kozlov received orders to get the most out of the car. Even during takeoff, at low speed, he took an almost vertical angle. For a liner with such a configuration, this is fraught with enormous overloads. As a result, one of the external nodes could not stand it and fell off.
According to the employees of the A.N. Tupolev Design Bureau, the cause of the disaster was the connection of an undebugged analog block of the control system, which led to a destructive overload.
The spy version belongs to writer James Alberg. Briefly it is like this. The Soviets tried to “furnish” the Concorde. Group N.D. Kuznetsova created good engines, but they could not operate at low temperatures, unlike the Concorde ones. Then Soviet intelligence officers got involved. Penkovsky, through his agent Greville Wine, obtained part of the Concorde drawings and sent them to Moscow through an East German trade representative. British counterintelligence thus identified the leak, but instead of arresting the spy, it decided to let disinformation into Moscow through his own channels. As a result, the Tu-144 was born, very similar to the Concorde. It is difficult to establish the truth, since the “black boxes” did not clarify anything. One was found in Bourges, at the crash site, but, judging by reports, damaged. The second one was never discovered. It is believed that the “black box” of a supersonic aircraft has become a point of contention between the KGB and the GRU.
According to the pilots, emergency situations occurred on almost every flight. On May 23, 1978, the second supersonic plane crashed. An improved experimental version of the airliner, Tu-144D (No. 77111), after a fuel fire in the engine nacelle area of the 3rd power plant due to the destruction of the fuel line, smoke in the cabin and the crew turning off two engines, made an emergency landing on a field near the village of Ilyinsky Pogost, not far from the city Yegoryevsk.
After landing, crew commander V.D. Popov, co-pilot E.V. Elyan and navigator V.V. Vyazigin left the plane through the cockpit window. Engineers V.M. Kulesh, V.A. Isaev, V.N. Stolpovsky, who were in the cabin, left the aircraft through the front entrance door. Flight engineers O. A. Nikolaev and V. L. Venediktov found themselves trapped in their workplace by structures that were deformed during landing and died. (The deflected nose cone touched the ground first, worked like a bulldozer blade, picking up soil, and rotated under its belly, entering the fuselage.) On June 1, 1978, Aeroflot stopped supersonic passenger flights forever.
Improving supersonic aircraft
Work on improving the supersonic aircraft continued for several more years. Five production aircraft were produced; another five were under construction. A new modification has been developed - Tu-144D (long-range). However, the choice of a new engine (more economical), RD-36-51, required significant redesign of the aircraft, especially the power plant. Serious design gaps in this area led to a delay in the release of the new airliner. Only in November 1974, the serial Tu-144D (tail number 77105) took off, and nine (!) years after its first flight, on November 1, 1977, the supersonic aircraft received a certificate of airworthiness. Passenger flights opened on the same day. During their short operation, the liners carried 3,194 passengers. On May 31, 1978, flights were stopped: a fire broke out on one of the production Tu-144Ds, and the airliner suffered a disaster, crashing during an emergency landing.
The disasters in Paris and Yegoryevsk led to the fact that interest in the project on the part of the state decreased. From 1977 to 1978, 600 problems were identified. As a result, already in the 80s, it was decided to remove the supersonic aircraft, explaining this with “a bad effect on people’s health when crossing the sound barrier.” Nevertheless, four out of five Tu-144Ds in production were still completed. Subsequently, they were based in Zhukovsky and took to the air as flying laboratories. A total of 16 supersonic aircraft were built (including long-range modifications), which made a total of 2,556 sorties. By the mid-90s, ten of them had survived: four in museums (Monino, Kazan, Kuibyshev, Ulyanovsk); one remained at the plant in Voronezh, where it was built; another one was in Zhukovsky along with four Tu-144Ds.
Subsequently, the Tu-144D was used only for cargo transportation between Moscow and Khabarovsk. In total, the supersonic aircraft made 102 flights under the Aeroflot flag, of which 55 were passenger flights (3,194 passengers were carried).
Later, supersonic aircraft only made test flights and a few flights to set world records.
The Tu-144LL was equipped with NK-32 engines due to the lack of serviceable NK-144 or RD-36-51, similar to those used on the Tu-160, various sensors and test monitoring and recording equipment.
A total of 16 Tu-144 airliners were built, which made a total of 2,556 sorties and flew 4,110 hours (among them, aircraft 77144 flew the most, 432 hours). The construction of four more airliners was never completed.
What happened to the planes
A total of 16 were built - sides 68001, 77101, 77102, 77105, 77106, 77107, 77108, 77109, 77110, 77111, 77112, 77113, 77114, 77115, 77116 and 77144.
Those remaining in flying condition do not currently exist. The sides of Tu-144LL No. 77114 and TU-144D No. 77115 are almost completely complete with parts and can be restored to flight condition.
In repairable condition, TU-144LL No. 77114, which was used for NASA tests, is stored at the airfield in Zhukovsky.
TU-144D No. 77115 is also stored at the airfield in Zhukovsky. In 2007, both airliners were repainted and exhibited for public viewing at the MAKS-2007 air show.
No. 77114 and No. 77115 will most likely be installed as monuments or displayed at the airfield in Zhukovsky. In 2004-2005, some transactions were made with them to sell them for scrap metal, but protests from the aviation community led to their preservation. The danger of selling them for scrap metal has not been completely eliminated. The questions of whose ownership they will become have not been finally resolved.
The photograph contains the signature of the first cosmonaut who landed on the moon, Neil Armstrong, pilot cosmonaut Georgiy Timofeevich Beregovoy and all the dead crew members. Supersonic aircraft No. 77102 crashed during a demonstration flight at the Le Bourget air show. All 6 crew members (Honored test pilot Hero of the Soviet Union M.V. Kozlov, test pilot V.M. Molchanov, navigator G.N. Bazhenov, deputy chief designer, engineer Major General V.N. Benderov, leading engineer B.A. Pervukhin and flight engineer A.I. Dralin) died.
From left to right. Six crew members on board supersonic aircraft No. 77102: Honored Test Pilot Hero of the Soviet Union M.V. Kozlov, Test Pilot V.M. Molchanov, Navigator G.N. Bazhenov, Deputy Chief Designer, Engineer Major General V.N. Benderov, leading engineer B.A. Pervukhin and flight engineer A.I. Dralin (unfortunately, she did not specify who is in order). Next is the pilot-cosmonaut twice Hero of the Soviet Union, Major General Beregovoy Georgy Timofeevich, behind him on the left is Lavrov Vladimir Aleksandrovich, then the first American cosmonaut to land on the moon Neil Armstrong, then (standing behind Neil) - Stepan Gavrilovich Korneev (head of the Internal Affairs Directorate from the Department of External Relations Presidium of the Academy of Sciences), in the center Andrey Nikolaevich Tupolev - Soviet aircraft designer, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Colonel General, three times Hero of Socialist Labor, Hero of Labor of the RSFSR, then Alexander Alexandrovich Arkhangelsky, chief designer of the plant, Soviet aircraft designer, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Honored Scientist and technicians of the RSFSR, Hero of Socialist Labor. Far right is Tupolev Alexey Andreevich (son of A.N. Tupolev) - Russian aircraft designer, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1984, Hero of Socialist Labor. The photo was taken in 1970. Captions on the photo of G.T. Beregovoy and Neil Armstrong.
Concord
Concorde accident.
Currently, the liner is not in operation due to the disaster on July 25, 2000. 10 April 2003 British Airways and Air France announced the decision to cease commercial operation of its Concorde fleet. The last flights took place on October 24. Concorde's final flight took place on November 26, 2003, with G-BOAF (the last aircraft built) departing Heathrow, flying over the Bay of Biscay, passing over Bristol, and landing at Filton Airport.
Why are supersonic aircraft no longer in use?
Tupolev's supersonic aircraft is often called the "lost generation." Intercontinental flights are recognized as uneconomical: per hour of flight, a supersonic plane burns eight times more fuel than a regular passenger plane. For the same reason, long-distance flights to Khabarovsk and Vladivostok were not justified. It is not advisable to use the supersonic Tu as a transport airliner due to its small carrying capacity. True, passenger transportation on it nevertheless became a prestigious and profitable business for Aeroflot, although tickets were considered very expensive at that time. Even after the official closure of the project, in August 1984, the head of the Zhukovsky flight test base Klimov, the head of the design department Pukhov and deputy chief designer Popov, with the support of supersonic flight enthusiasts, restored and commissioned two airliners, and in 1985 they obtained permission to fly for setting world records. The crews of Aganov and Veremey set more than 18 world records in the class of supersonic aircraft - in speed, climb rate and flight range with cargo.
On March 16, 1996, a series of research flights of the Tu-144LL began in Zhukovsky, which marked the beginning of the development of the second generation of supersonic passenger airliners.
95-99 years. The supersonic aircraft with tail number 77114 was used by the American NASA as a flying laboratory. Received the name Tu-144LL. The main purpose is research and testing of American developments to create our own modern supersonic aircraft for passenger transportation.