Mountains included in the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt. Name of seismic belts on the map. Mediterranean fold belt
A year ago - on April 25, 2015 - a resonant earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 occurred in Nepal.
In April 2016, the main seismic events occurred in the Pacific Ring of Fire in the Philippines, near Kamchatka, in Japan, off Vanuatu— April 13, 2016 , near Guatemala, in Japan, April 15, 2016, in Ecuador on April 16, 2016.
But, - April 13, 2016- there was an earthquake magnitude 6.9 — in Myanmar . This is the zone of the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt. Forecast.
On Earth, from April to July 2016, a period of seismic turbulence begins. In seismically active regions, two resonant earthquakes occur per day, as well as a huge number of aftershocks and aftershocks. The number of resonant earthquakes in a short period of time increases.
As stated in the earthquake forecast for April 2016:
In March 2016, under the influence of cosmic resonance factors, large seismic energy accumulated in the Earth's geosphere. IN April - May - June 2016 the accumulated seismic energy will be released in the form of resonant earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Trigger of the Himalayan tectonics 2015. Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt.
The period of seismic calm in Southeast Asia is coming to an end, and the catastrophic earthquake that occurred in Nepal on April 25, 2015, could become a trigger for even more destructive tremors in the Himalayas, geologists say in the pages of Science News.
Experts believe that the Nepal earthquake of magnitude 7.9 is long overdue. The section of the fault where the epicenter of the tremors occurred has been seismically stable since 1344. The source of the tremors was located at a depth of 15 km, where the Indian plate is moving under southern Tibet at a speed of about 20 mm per year. Compression of the plates leads to an increase in pressure, as a result, the rocks of the earth’s crust cannot withstand and crack.
Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt.
The tectonic plates located beneath Nepal have been approaching a fault point for several centuries. The shocks were too weak to relieve all the accumulated pressure, they only “let off steam.” Now we should expect powerful earthquakes, however, scientists do not know the exact timing.
Source
Activity in the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt at the end of April 2016.
This seismic activity in the region determines the high probability of a resonant earthquake with a magnitude of more than 7.0 - at the end of April, beginning of May 2016.
Resonance dates of seismic activity at the end of April 2016.
Since March 2016, seismic resonance has been in effect - a factor in the emerging Jupiter-Saturn square.
Cosmological correspondence - resonant earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 7.0, resonant tsunamis, resonant eruptions of active volcanoes.
The period of validity of the exact and wide square Jupiter - Saturn is March - July 2016.
The reversal of Mars near Saturn - April 17, 2016 - seismic resonance is a factor.
Mars is in a reversal from April 15 to April 20, 2016 on the Aldebaran-Antares catastrophe axis - seismic resonance - factor.
Pluto reversal - April 18, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor.
Conjunction Moon, Jupiter in square to conjunction Mars, Saturn - April 18, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor.
Tau square Moon - Pluto - Venus, Uranus - April 20, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor.
Conjunction of Mars, Moon, Saturn in square to Jupiter, in square to Neptune - April 25, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor.
Mercury's reversal - April 28, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor.
Ingression, transition of Venus into the sign of Taurus - April 30, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor.
Turn of Jupiter into direct motion in square to Saturn - May 9, 2016 - seismic resonance - factor + - 14 days.
Studies of the connections between seismic activity, volcanic activity, intense manifestation of the Elements with Cosmic factors, gravitational fields of planets, solar activity, torsion fields and rays of Near and Far Space - Fixed Stars, Nebulae - Galaxies - are carried out in the method "Cosmology - Astrology as a security system." Software - ZET GEO astroprocessor.
Andrey Andreev is a cosmorhythmologist.
Forecast of earthquakes and seismic activity for 2016. Regions of seismic activity 2016.
Earthquake forecast for April 2016.
Earth crystal grid.
A folded belt crossing North-West Africa and Eurasia in a latitudinal direction from the Atlantic Ocean to the South China Sea, separating the southern group of ancient platforms, which until the mid-Jurassic period made up the supercontinent Gondwana, from the northern group, which previously made up the continent of Laurasia and the Siberian platform. In the east, the Mediterranean fold belt articulates with the western branch of the Pacific geosynclinal belt.
The Mediterranean belt covers the southern regions of Europe and the Mediterranean, the Maghreb (Northwest Africa), Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Persian mountain systems, the Pamirs, the Himalayas, Tibet, Indochina and the Indonesian islands. In the middle and central parts of Asia it is almost united with the Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal system, and in the west it is close to the North Atlantic system.
- Mesozoids -
- Indosinian (Tibeto-Malay);
- Western Turkmen (Nebitdag);
- Alps -
- Caucasian;
- Crimean;
- Balkan;
- Central European;
- Apennine;
- North Maghreb;
- Iran-Oman;
- Kopetdago-Elbourse;
- Balochistan;
- Afghan-Tajik;
- Pamir;
- Himalayan;
- Irrawaddy;
- West Malay
Notes
Links
TOPIC 3 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE AREAS OF ALPINE FOLDING (GEOLOGY OF THE GREATER CAUCASUS, FOLDED REGION OF THE EASTERN CARPATHIANS AND MOUNTAIN CRIMEA)
Task 4 Scheme of the structures of the Alpine folded region of the Greater Caucasus
Target: draw up a diagram of the structures of the folded region of the Greater Caucasus
Work plan:
1 Legend to the diagram of the structures of the Greater Caucasus
2 Border of the Greater Caucasus
3 Main structural elements of the Greater Caucasus
Materials:
- literature: Koronovsky N.V.
Short course in regional geology of the USSR. – Ed. Moscow University, 1984. – 334 pp., Lazko E.M. Regional geology of the USSR. Volume 1, European part and the Caucasus. – M.: Nedra, 1975.
– 333 pp., lecture notes on the geology of the East European Platform.
Basic concepts for the assignment
In the north, the boundary between the meganticlinorium of the Greater Caucasus and the Scythian plate is drawn along the top of the Cretaceous deposits. To the south of the anticlinorium is the Southern slope of the Greater Caucasus, which is an alpine geosynclinal trough composed of Lower-Upper Jurassic deposits.
The diagram shows the following structural elements of the Greater Caucasus: the Main Anticlinorium, the Front Range, the North Caucasian Monokinal, the Southern Slope of the Greater Caucasus, the Rioni and Kura troughs, the Dzirul massif, the Azerbaijan folded zone.
When identifying the above structural elements of the Greater Caucasus, the following features must be taken into account.
Within the Main Anticlinorium, Precambrian rocks penetrated to the surface, penetrated by Mesozoic and Alpine, mainly granitoid intrusions.
In the structures of the Front Range, deposits of the Middle, Upper Cambrian and Silurian, Middle, Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous (Paleozoic) are exposed, intruded by intrusions of acidic, intermediate and ultrabasic composition and molassoid strata of the Middle, Upper Carboniferous and Permian.
The North Caucasian monokinal is located north of the structures of the Main Anticlinorium and the Front Range. Its cover is represented by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits.
The southern slope of the Greater Caucasus is located south of the anticlinorium.
It is made of Middle Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks.
The Rioni and Kura troughs are located between the folded structures of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus.
They are delineated by Cenozoic deposits.
The Dzirula massif separates the Rioni and Kura troughs. Here Riphean and Paleozoic rocks with Hercynian and Cimmerian granites come to the surface.
The Azerbaijan folded zone is located in the eastern part of the meganticlinorium and is contoured by Pliocene-Anthropogen deposits.
Progress
Task 5 Scheme of the structures of the alpine folded regions of the Eastern Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains
Target: draw up a diagram of the structures of the Eastern Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains
Work plan:
1 Legend to the structure diagram of the folded system of the Eastern Carpathians
2 Boundary of the folded system of the Eastern Carpathians
3 Main structural elements of the Eastern Carpathians
4 Boundary of the folded system of the Crimean Mountains
Materials:
- Tectonic map of Europe and adjacent areas M 1: 22500000, Geological map of the USSR M 1: 4000000, contour map of Europe M 1: 17000000 – 20000000;
- a notebook for practical exercises, a simple soft pencil, a set of colored pencils, an eraser, a ruler;
- literature: Koronovsky N.V.
Short course in regional geology of the USSR. – Ed. Moscow University, 1984. – 334 pp., Lazko E.M. Regional geology of the USSR. Volume 1, European part and the Caucasus. – M.: Nedra, 1975. – 333 p., lecture notes on the geology of the East European Platform.
Basic concepts for the assignment
The meganticlinorium of the Eastern Carpathians has a well-defined longitudinal structural-facial zonation and thrust of internal zones onto external ones and the latter onto the Cis-Carpathian foredeep.
The diagram shows the following structural elements of the Eastern Carpathians: the Pre-Carpathian marginal trough, the Skibo zone, the Marmarosh crystalline massif, the Cliffs Zone, the Transcarpathian marginal trough. In addition, the folded region of the Crimean Mountains should be outlined on the diagram.
When identifying the above mentioned structural elements of the Eastern Carpathians, the following features must be taken into account.
The Pre-Carpathian foredeep is located on the border of the folded structure of the Eastern Carpathians and the East European Platform.
It is made of Miocene deposits.
The skibo zone is the outermost part of the Carpathians. It is outlined by Pomelovy and Paleogene deposits.
The Marmarosh crystalline massif occupies an internal position in the extreme southeast.
Within the Marmarosh massif, the most ancient Proterozoic-Mesozoic rocks are exposed. The deposits are intruded by Middle Paleozoic granitoids. The cover structure of the Marmarosh massif also includes Upper Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Jurassic deposits, overlain by Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits.
The Marmarosh massif narrows to the north-west and then the Cliffs Zone is located, which is expressed by a narrow, sometimes double strip of outcrops of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits randomly scattered among the Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks.
On the rear, inner side, the mountain structure of the Carpathians is limited by the Transcarpathian regional trough. It is made with Neogene molasse.
When identifying the folded region of the Crimean Mountains, it is necessary to take into account that its borders extend from the city.
Sevastopol in the west. Feodosia in the east. The northern border separates the Crimean Mountains from the structures of the Scythian plate and runs along the top of the Cretaceous deposits.
Progress, the methodology for its implementation and design is similar to those in tasks 1 and 2.
TOPIC 4 MAIN FEATURES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BELARUS
Task 6 Describe the main structures of the territory of Belarus using cartographic materials
Target: Describe the main structures of the territory of Belarus, expressed in the foundation, using cartographic materials
Structure description plan:
1 Name of the first order structure and the second order structures identified within them.
2 Boundaries of the first order structure.
3 Foundation depths - minimum and maximum depths within the boundaries of the first-order structure, depths within the second-order structures, characteristic features of the foundation surface.
4 Time and conditionality of structure formation.
6 Characteristics of the main faults limiting the structures of the first order and separating the structures of the second order (rank, time of formation, location, extent, width of the zone of influence, vertical amplitude, outline in plan, activity at the present stage).
7 Structural complexes and floors (name, distribution and what rock formations they are composed of).
Materials:
- tectonic maps of Belarus M 1: 500000 and M 1: 1000000;
- notebook for practical exercises
- Literature: Geology of Belarus: monograph // Ed.
A.S. Makhnacha – Minsk, 2001. – 814 p., Faults in the Earth’s crust of Belarus: monograph // Ed. by R.E. Iceberg. Minsk: Krasiko-Print, 2007. - 372 p., STB Symbols for maps of geological content (working draft). – Minsk: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2011.
– 53 pp., lecture notes on the geology of Belarus.
Indolo-Kuban trough
Page 1
The Indolo-Kuban trough is a foothill one.
The Miocene-Pliocene deposits of the Indolo-Kuban trough include mainly sandy strata of the Chakrak-Karagan, Sarmatian, Maeotic and Pontian ages, which are associated with the gas-oil Anastasievsko-Troitskoye field. The industrial oil and gas potential of the field has been identified in Cimmerian, Pontic, Maeotic and Sarmatian deposits.
The mineralization of waters of Sarmatian rocks in Western Ciscaucasia increases from east to west, reaching a maximum (60 g/l) in the central part of the trough. In this case, the composition of the water changes from sodium sulfate to sodium bicarbonate and calcium chloride.
In the central part of the Indolo-Kuban trough, below the cut surface - 4-5 km, Paleogene-Lower Neogene sediments will be penetrated by wells.
The East Seversky field is located on the southern side of the Indolo-Kuban trough. The deposit is built very complexly and represents an anticlinal fold in Eocene and Oligocene Paleogene deposits, buried under monoclinal Neogene deposits. The strike of the structure is close to latitudinal, the fold is asymmetrical: the northern wing is steeper than the southern one.
The Anastasievsko-Troitskoye gas condensate and oil field is located in the Indolo-Kuban trough.
The field is multi-layered, discovered in 1952. Gas deposits are associated with the Cimmerian and Pontic horizons, and oil deposits are associated with the Maeotic horizons.
Against the background of highly mineralized chloride-calcium waters of the Maeotic deposits in the central part of the Indolo-Kuban trough, a hydrochemical minimum is observed within the Anastasievsko-Troitsk fold, associated with the intrusion of low-mineralized waters from the diapiric core.
The given water pressures decrease from east to west from 400 to 160 m and are determined by the infiltration regime. In the most submerged part of the Indolo-Kuban trough in the area of the Anastasievsko-Troitskoye field in Miocene deposits, there is an elision regime and extensive zones of high pressure pressure have been established.
ALPINE-HIMALAYAN MOBILE BELT
The southern part of the basin, adjacent to the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, is located within the Indolo-Kuban trough and is experiencing intense subsidence. The thickness of marine Holocene sediments here reaches a few tens of meters.
Among them, clayey and clayey-silty silts with varying amounts of admixture of mollusk shells predominate.
The Shirokaya Balka-Veselaya deposit, discovered in 1937, is located within the southern side of the Indolo-Kuban trough.
Here, in the sediments of the middle Maikop, a strip of sandy-silty rocks was identified, in the southern part of which bay-like protrusions form a series of lithological traps filled with oil. One of them is called Shirokaya Beam, the other is Veselaya.
They are united by a common oil-bearing zone.
The Ancestor Belt is the cone of their forward troughs: I ] - Terek-Caspian and Kusaro-Divn - Chinsky troughs; b—Indolo-Kuban trough. III, Transcaucasian intermountain trough: III ] - Dzirula-Okrnbskaya uplift zone; Ш2—foothill troughs of Western Georgia; Ш3 - Colchis trough; Ш4 - Kura depression; Ills - Absheron-Kobystan trough.
Meganticlinorium of the Lesser Caucasus: IVi - Adzhar-Trialeti folded zone; IVa - Somkheto-Karabakh anticlinorium; IV3 - Sevan synclinorium; IV4 - Zangezur-Ordubad zone; IVS—Armenian-Akhalkalaki volcanic shield; IVa - Araks depression; IV.
The Novodmitrievskoye field, discovered in 1951, is located within the Kaluga belt of buried anticlinal folds, complicating the southern side of the Indolo-Kuban trough, and is an anticlinal fold of almost latitudinal strike (with a deviation to the southeast), complicated by a large number of disjunctive faults.
In addition to the considered Ust-Labinskoye and Nekrasovskoye fields, in the southern part of the Yeysko-Berezan uplift zone, confined to the Ust-La - the Bino ledge of the basement separating the East Kuban depression from the Indolo-Kuban trough, there are the Dvubratskoye and Ladoga fields.
Within the Steppe Crimea, in addition to the Sivash depression, the other main tectonic elements are: the Novoselovsko-Simferopol uplift of the Paleozoic basement, which in the west plunges into the Alma depression, and in the east passes into the Indolo-Kuban trough.
Pages: 1 2
Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) folded (geosynclinal) belt- a fold belt crossing North-West Africa and Eurasia in a latitudinal direction from the Atlantic Ocean to the South China Sea, separating the southern group of ancient platforms, which until the mid-Jurassic period made up the supercontinent Gondwana, from the northern group, which previously made up the continent of Laurasia and the Siberian platform.
In the east, the Mediterranean fold belt articulates with the western branch of the Pacific geosynclinal belt.
The Mediterranean belt covers the southern regions of Europe and the Mediterranean, the Maghreb (Northwest Africa), Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Persian mountain systems, the Pamirs, the Himalayas, Tibet, Indochina and the Indonesian islands.
Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt
In the middle and central parts of Asia it is almost united with the Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal system, and in the west it is close to the North Atlantic system.
The belt was formed over a long period of time, spanning the period from the Precambrian to the present day.
The Mediterranean geosynclinal belt includes 2 folded regions (mesozoids and alpides), which are divided into systems:
Cm.
Notes
- Tseysler V.M., Karaulov V.B., Uspenskaya E.A., Chernova E.S. Fundamentals of regional geology of the USSR. - M: Nedra, 1984. - 358 p.
Links
Folded belts on the world map
Alpine folding is an era in the history of the formation of the earth's crust. During this era, the highest mountain system in the world - the Himalayas - was formed. What characterizes the era? What other mountains of alpine folding exist?
Folding of the earth's crust
In geology, the word “fold” does not stray far from its original meaning. It denotes a section of the earth's crust in which the rock has been "crushed." Usually the rock occurs in horizontal layers. Under the influence of internal processes of the Earth, its position can change. It bends or is compressed, overlapping adjacent areas. This phenomenon is called folding.
The formation of folds occurs unevenly. The periods of their appearance and development are named in accordance with geological eras. The most ancient is Archean. It finished forming 1.6 billion years ago. Since that time, numerous external processes of the planet have turned it into plains.
After the Archean, there were the Baikal, Caledonian, and Hercynian. The most recent is the Alpine folding era. In the history of the formation of the earth's crust, it occupies the last 60 million years. The name of the era was first voiced by the French geologist Marcel Bertrand in 1886.
Alpine folding: characteristics of the period
The era can be roughly divided into two periods. In the first, deflections actively appeared in the earth's surface. Gradually they were filled with lava and sediment. The crustal uplifts were small and very local. The second stage occurred more intensively. Various geodynamic processes contributed to the formation of mountains.
Alpine folding has formed most of the largest modern mountain systems that are part of the Mediterranean and Pacific volcanic ring. Thus, the folding forms two large areas with mountain ranges and volcanoes. They are part of the youngest mountains on the planet and differ in climatic zones and altitudes.
The era has not yet ended, but mountains continue to form even now. This is evidenced by seismic and volcanic activity in various regions of the Earth. The folded area is not continuous. The ridges are often interrupted by depressions (for example, the Fergana depression), and seas have formed in some of them (Black, Caspian, Mediterranean).
Mediterranean belt
Mountain systems of Alpine folding, which belong to the Alpine-Himalayan belt, extend in the latitudinal direction. They almost completely cross Eurasia. They begin in North Africa, pass through the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, stretching through the Himalayas to the islands of Indochina and Indonesia.
Mountains of Alpine folding include the Apennines, Dinara, Carpathians, Alps, Balkans, Atlas, Caucasus, Burma, Himalayas, Pamirs, etc. All of them are distinguished by their appearance and height. For example, - medium-high, have smooth outlines. They are covered with forests, alpine and subalpine vegetation. The Crimean mountains, in contrast, are steeper and rockier. They are covered by more sparse steppe and forest-steppe vegetation.
The highest mountain system is the Himalayas. They are found within 7 countries, including Tibet. The mountains stretch over 2,400 kilometers in length, and their average heights reach 6 kilometers. The highest point is Mount Everest with an altitude of 8848 kilometers.
Pacific Ring of Fire
Alpine folding is also associated with the formation. It also includes depressions that are adjacent to them. There is a volcanic ring along the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean.
It covers Kamchatka, the Kuril and Japanese Islands, the Philippines, Antarctica, New Zealand and New Guinea on the west coast. On the east coast of the ocean, it includes the Andes, the Cordillera, the Aleutian Islands and the Tierra del Fuego archipelago.
This area earned the name “ring of fire” due to the fact that most of the planet’s volcanoes are located here. Approximately 330 of them are active. In addition to eruptions, the largest number of earthquakes occur within the Pacific belt.
Part of the ring is the longest mountain system on the planet - the Cordillera. They cross 10 countries that make up North and South America. The length of the mountain range is 18 thousand kilometers.
The location of planetary mountain belts on Earth, as well as flat-plate mountain belts, is not the same. The Alpine-Himalayan belt is elongated in the sublatitudinal direction, the Andean-Cordilleran belt is stretched in the submeridional direction, and the East Asian belt, as it were, borders the Asian continent from the east, following its bends.
The Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt begins in the southwest of Europe and stretches in a narrow strip to the east. It includes the Apennines, the Balkans, as well as in the internal depressions. One of them is a depression. The Pyrenees protect the Meseta plateau from the northeast with a barrier almost 600 km long. This is a small mountainous country, equal in size. The width of the ridge at its base is close to 120 km. The highest point of the Pyrenees is the Peak de Aneto - 3404 m. Starting at the eastern end of the Cantabrian Mountains, where they form a single ridge, to the east the Pyrenees are split into several parallel ridges. In its axial zone, the Pyrenees are composed of Paleozoic shales, sandstones, quartzites, limestones, and granites. On the northern and southern slopes, Paleozoic rocks are hidden under Mesozoic and Paleogene deposits. They are crumpled into folds and in places pushed over each other. The only volcanic area of the Pyrenees is the Olot tectonic depression. The Alps are one of the largest mountainous countries in this belt. Its length is about 1200 km, and the height of individual peaks exceeds 4 km (Mont Blanc - 4710 m). The mountains are highly dissected and, like the Pyrenees, do not form a single mountain range. Their axial zone is composed of crystalline basement rocks - granites, gneisses, metamorphic schists, which, as they approach the outskirts, are replaced by sedimentary strata of clayey shales, thin-layered sandstones and mudstones. In the north, the Alps are framed by low plateaus located on the site of a foothill trough; in the south there is the Venice-Padan depression. The eastern edge of the Alps is crossed by rift basins, separating them from the Danube plains. There are no volcanoes in the Alps.
The Carpathians have a length of almost 1500 km. The highest elevations in the High Tatras are 2663 m. The width, however, is less than that of the Alps, but the ridges are more isolated. Intermontane basins penetrate deep into the mountains, which are composed mainly of sandstone and clays, but in the Western Carpathians there are granites and granite gneisses. A volcanic ridge stretches along the southern slope of the Eastern Carpathians. The Carpathians are more fragmented than the Alps.
The Caucasian Jurassic in its relief is more similar to the Alps. But their morphostructures are different.
The length of the Caucasus reaches 1100 km, and the area is about 145 thousand km2. This is a mountain system consisting of longitudinal and transverse ridges, elongated depressions, and volcanic massifs. According to its features, it is distinguished by the northern and southern slopes, as well as the axial strip.
The highest mountains (4 - 5 km), composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks, are located in the axial strip. Their ledges are bordered by sandstones, limestones and shales of Mesozoic age. The main Caucasus ridge is sharply dissected by deep valleys, glaciers are found on steep slopes, and the highest peak of the Caucasus and all of Europe, Mount Elbrus, is a huge volcanic cone, the height of which reaches 5633 m. The rivers are rapids, with a rapid current.
The Caucasus looks like a giant vault, broken into blocks by huge cracks. The movements of these blocks continue to this day, which often leads to landslides on the slopes.
Between the chains of enormous mountains in this part of Europe are the Danube Plains, formed on the site of a submerged middle massif. The average surface height is: at the Upper Danube Plain - 11O - 120 m, at the Middle Danube - 80 - 85 m, at the Lower Danube - 10 - 30 m.
Most of the Apennine Peninsula is occupied by the Apennine Mountains. This is a system of medium-altitude ridges that rose and took shape only 800 thousand years ago. Here is the zone of the most significant earthquakes and the largest active ones in Europe. The highest point of the Apennines is Mount Corpo Grande (2914 m). Volcanoes are concentrated along the western coast and at the bottom of the sea: Amiata, Vulsino, Vesuvius, Etna, Vulture, etc. The largest are the Dinaric Highlands, the Albano-Pindus Mountains, the folded Stara Planina Mountains, and the Rila-Rhodope Mountains.
A continuation of the Alpine-Himalayan belt is the Asia Minor Plateau. In the north, the Pontic ridge stretches in a long chain, in the south - the Taurus Mountains.
The Armenian volcanic highland (5156 m) is located east of the Anatolian Plateau. Here you can see volcanic plateaus, volcanic cones, collapse basins and other forms of volcanic relief. In general, the Armenian Highlands is a huge arch, raised and split into separate parts. The largest area of the huge Iranian Plateau (5604 m) is occupied by the Elborz range, the Zagros Mountains and the vast plains between them. This is an active seismic zone where earthquakes up to magnitude 10 occur.
In the southeast, the Alpine-Himalayan belt ends with the Burmese Highlands (4149 m), composed of granites, crystalline shales, limestones and sandstones. Submeridional ridges are separated here by longitudinal depressions. The axial zones are composed of Mesozoic granites and shales. The Shan Highlands are similar to it.
Thus, the entire Alpine-Himalayan belt is characterized by dynamism and contrast (in the Alps the range of movements was 10-12 km; in the Carpathians - 6-7 km; in the Himalayas - 10-12 km). Although it did not develop in all of this belt, the seismic tension is quite high. Zones of “seismic silence” alternate with zones of frequent forces up to 10 points.
The Andean-Cordillera mountain belt, with a width of 600 to 1200 km, stretches for 18 thousand km. It starts in Alaska and runs along the western coasts of and. The mountains and plateaus of Alaska are diverse. The coastal plains are separated from the interior by high ridges, the Yukon Plateau is divided into sections by intermountain depressions, and the Brooks Range, an impenetrable wall, separates the Yukon from the ocean ice to the north. The geological structure of this territory includes rocks of Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages. They are, as a rule, folded and displaced along thrust zones. Eastern Alaska is characterized by deep longitudinal ditches that extend far to the south.
The Rocky Mountains are a chain of high parallel ridges and mountain ranges stretching over 3,200 km. The width of the chain is significant (400 - 700 km), although not constant. The thickness of the earth's crust is about 40 km. The mountains reach an altitude of 4399 m. The tectonic and geological structures of the Rocky Mountains in the north and south differ markedly. In the north, deep ditches and blocky massifs are visible. Rift formations are widespread in the central and especially southern Rocky Mountains. Until now, one of the mysteries remains the origin of the giant Moat of the Rocky Mountains - a narrow (about 6-12 km) crack stretched along the western slope of the mountains for 15 thousand km. Based on breaks in the rock mass, it is possible to establish thrusts of Precambrian strata onto Mesozoic rocks. The enormous length of the Moat can only be explained by tectonic stretching of the earth's crust. In the central part, the main ridge is about 300 km wide. The southern part of the Rocky Mountains differs sharply from the northern and central parts.
Between the Rocky Mountains and the sea coast are inland plateaus, mountains and mesas. They include the Stikine, Nechako-Fraser, Columbia, Colorado, and Ranges and Basins provinces. Inland plateaus and plateaus are characterized by undulating topography with mountains. The Colombian Plateau (200 - 1000 m) is composed mainly of volcanic rocks; Colorado is a horizontally-lying sedimentary rock, and only the Ridges and Basins province is a unique territory with unusual topography. Its average height is 1400 - 1700 m, the maximum is 4356 m. In its relief, the Mexican Highlands differs from the Rocky Mountains and inland plains. This is a mountainous region with separated ridges 600 - 1000 m high. Some of them reach 2500 m. There are extensive plateaus and volcanic massifs. The most famous volcanoes include Popocatepetl (5452 m) and Orizaba (5747 m). They are distinguished by well-defined conical arrays. In the coastal zone there are high ridges and deep depressions, and the relief is less contrasting, although this is where the highest point in America is located - Mt. (6193 m). A characteristic feature of the relief is the exceptional fragmentation of blocks, the linear arrangement of ridges and depressions.
The differences in the major relief features of this part of the Andean-Cordillera mountain belt are due, first of all, to the history of their formation. The Rocky Mountain ranges were formed at the end of the Mesozoic, when low-lying plains still existed in place of the interior plateaus and plateaus. The fragmented, but tectonically less active morphostructures of the Rocky Mountains already about 10 million years ago turned into large linear ridges and depressions, and then into a system of alternating volcanic ridges and plateaus, block mountains, and crevice-shaped ditches. The narrow and long isthmus connecting North and South is called Central America. It is characterized by many volcanic massifs and ridges, lava plateaus and plateaus. A dense network of faults runs throughout this region. The Andean-Cordilleran belt continues in South America. The most characteristic feature of the Andes located here is an extensive system of ridges called. They stretch almost parallel to each other and are separated by deep depressions, high plateaus and plateaus. The highest mountain range is crowned by Mount Aconkagau (6980 m).
On both sides of the Andes there are linear troughs. They have different origins. In the north, the belt begins with a sublatitudinal strip of the Venezuelan Andes, which are replaced by the Colombian Andes without sharp transitions. The largest ranges here are the Western, Central and Eastern Cordillera, as if radiating from one node in the area of the Kumbal massif in the south. Located to the south, the Ecuadorian-Peruvian Andes are only 320 - 350 km wide. There are no curving mountain ranges here. The average height reaches 4 - 5 km, and the highest elevations are the volcanic massifs of Chimborazo (6272 m) and Cotopaxi (5896 m). In this area, the so-called alley of volcanoes is clearly expressed in the relief - the bottom of a large graben filled with ash-sand and gravelly deposits and framed on both sides by chains of volcanic cones. In the south of Peru, the uplift of intermountain basins led to the formation of huge plateaus.
If you move towards the Andes from the Pacific Ocean, the Andes mountain range appears somehow immediately, without a gradual rise. The path is blocked by gorges with turbulent streams, the slopes become very steep, covered with yellow spots of fresh landslides. There are practically no river terraces in the valleys.
Here you can begin your climb to the Western Cordillera. Steep slopes go up, the road meanders, adapting to the terrain. And now dry steppes appear on both sides of the road; dried earth is clearly visible between the clumps of grass. Volcano cones grow, which at first do not make much of an impression - there is simply nothing to compare them with. Suddenly the road begins to descend, and the traveler finds himself at the bottom of a vast depression occupied by numerous villages, fields, and pastures. This depression is called differently - an avenue of volcanoes, an intra-Andean depression, a strip of giant grabens. The depression is bordered on both sides by the mountain ranges of the Western and Eastern Cordillera, its width reaches 40 km.
For residents of the temperate zone, such relief and landscapes are in many ways unusual. In Peru they are called paramo. i.e. high-mountain flat dry steppes. Páramo occupies between 2800 and 4700 m. The hilly plains here are a combination of surfaces composed of volcanic ash and debris ejected during. Stripes of lahars - frozen hot streams - are clearly visible.
Geologically, the páramo landscapes are a “layer cake”, consisting of different rocks and preserving the memory of the cataclysms of the past.
Not as well studied as on land. In the largest oceans - the Pacific and the Atlantic, stretching on both sides of the equator, the relief cannot even be compared with the most significant mountain belts on land. The Pacific Ocean is surrounded from the north, west and southwest by marginal seas that extend deep into the continents. The main morphostructures of the bottom are mid-ocean ridges and underwater basins with mountainous and flat terrain.
The mid-ocean ridges of the Pacific Ocean stretch for many thousands of kilometers and in some places take on the appearance of wide and extended hills, which are often broken by transform faults into segments of different sizes and different ages. The planetary system of mid-ocean ridges and rises in the Pacific Ocean is represented by the wide and weakly dissected South Pacific and East Pacific rises. Not far from the Gulf of California, the East Pacific Rise comes close to the continent of North America. At this ridge, rifts are weakly expressed and in some places absent. In the relief of the bowl, domed hills can be traced, spaced 200 - 300 km from each other.
Mountain structures in other parts of the Pacific Ocean are represented by vaulted blocky ridges, sometimes having an arcuate outline. For example, the northern arc is formed by the Hawaiian volcanic ridge. The island of Hawaii is the peak of a volcanic massif rising above the water from shield underwater volcanoes, fused at their bases. To the south of the Hawaiian ridge there is a mountain system whose length reaches 11 thousand km. It has different names in different areas. These underwater mountains begin from the Cartographer Massif, then move into the Marcus Necker Mountains and are further represented by underwater ridges near the Line and Tuamotu Islands. This mountain system goes almost to the base of the East Pacific Rise. According to scientists, all these mountains are fragments of the former mid-ocean ridge.
The huge Northeast Basin at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean lies at a depth of about 5 km (its maximum depth is 6741 m). The bottom of the basin is dominated by hilly terrain.
The planetary landform also includes - the second largest and deepest among the Earth's oceans. It stretches from to. The planetary ridge is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is divided into three ridges: Reykjanes, North Atlantic and South Atlantic. The Reykjanes Ridge can be traced from the island to the south. The Russian scientist O.K. Leontiev believed that this was not even a ridge, but a highland with well-defined axial and flank zones. The North Atlantic Ridge is divided into many segments by transform faults, and where they intersect, deep grabens are noted, often much deeper than the axial rift basin. The South Atlantic Ridge has a meridional strike and is divided into segments by the same faults. The Atlantic Ocean bed does not contain particularly large underwater basins, but plateaus and mountains are common. One of the largest underwater basins is the North American basin. Three flat plains were discovered within its boundaries.
The system of mid-ocean ridges in the third largest ocean on Earth differs from similar ridges in the Atlantic Ocean in that they consist of separate units (Arabian-Indian, West Indian, Central Indian ridges; Australian-Antarctic Rise), which both would converge at one point. Inside such a node there is a deep canyon, which gradually widens and leads to the disintegration of seamounts into separate parts. At the bottom of the Indian Ocean there are also. The bottom in them is lowered to a depth of 5 - 6 km. The relief of the Western Australian Basin (-6429 m) has well-defined underwater ridges and hills. In the largest Central Basin (-5290 m) at the bottom there is an inclined surface of an accumulative plume with distinct hollows - traces of turbidity currents. But in the middle of the gentle trail there are also mountains 3 - 3.5 km high. In the northeastern part of the ocean there is the East Indian submarine ridge with a length of about 4800 km and a relative height of about 4000 m. On the steep slopes of this ridge, almost no young sediments are found, and the ancient sedimentary cover contains magmatic bodies inside. The ridge formed at the site of a large meridional fault in the earth's crust about 75 million years ago (i.e., in Late Cretaceous time). Powerful outpourings of volcanic lava repeatedly led to the appearance of the tops of the ridge in the form of islands rising above the surface of the ocean. Following the plate theory, the mid-ocean ridges in the Indian Ocean are the boundaries of the African, Indo-Australian and Antarctic lithospheric plates. The bottom itself is the result of the spreading of these plates.
It is located in the Arctic region of the Northern Hemisphere - relatively small in size. Its area is about 13.1 million km2, and the average depth is 1780 m. In addition, within its borders there are numerous marginal seas and huge underwater plains of continental shelves. The width of some of the shelves reaches 1300 km. These are the largest shallow plains on our planet. It is characteristic that there are no deep-sea trenches in the Arctic Ocean. At the point, the ocean depth is about 4400 m.
The ALPINE-HIMALAYAN MOBILE BELT covers the territories of Southern Europe, North Africa, South and Southeast Asia - from the Strait of Gibraltar to Indonesia; stretches in the sublatitudinal direction for a distance of about 17 thousand km.
It is divided into four branches of fold-cover mountain structures. 1st - Pyrenees - Alps - Carpathians - Balkanids - Pontids - Lesser Caucasus - Elborz - Turkmen-Khorasan Mountains. 2nd - Northern Dobrudzha Mountain Crimea - Greater Caucasus - Kopetdag. 3rd - Apennines - Calabrides (south of the Apennine Peninsula) - structures of Northern Sicily - Tell Atlas - Er-Rif Andalusian Mountains (Cordillera-Betica) - structures of the Balearic Islands of the Western Mediterranean. 4th - Dinarides Hellenids - structures of the southern Aegean Sea - Cretan arc - Taurides of Turkey - Zagros - Makran - Balochistan mountains - Himalayas - Indo-Burman orogen - Sunda-Banda arc of Indonesia. The belt began to develop during the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea in the 2nd half of the Permian, when, as a result of continental rifting and subsequent spreading in the Triassic-Jurassic, the Mesotethys Ocean arose (see the Tethys article), which partially inherited the Paleozoic Paleo-Tethys, but was located south of the latter. The collision of continents in the Mesotethys region began in the Late Jurassic. In the Late Cretaceous, a new ocean opened up to the south - the Neotethys, which had many branches, bays and marginal seas. It is believed that the Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt mainly arose during the closure of this ocean. Relict Meso- and Neotethys basins are preserved in the Mediterranean Sea.
The closure of the Neotethys began in the Paleocene and was caused by the collision of island arcs and the collision of continents and microcontinents with Eurasia. The main phase of deformation is the late Eocene. Continental collision was accompanied by the formation of numerous nappes, including ophiolitic ones. The introduction of the Hindustan block into Eurasia from the south led to the formation in the eastern segment of the belt of the highest mountain ranges (Hindu Kush, Pamir, Himalayas). The implementation size is about 2 thousand km. The belt continues to actively develop (seismicity, volcanism). The modern convergence (approach) of the Afro-Arabian and Eurasian plates is realized in active subduction zones (the movement of one lithospheric plate under another) of the Eastern Mediterranean (Calabrian, Aegean and Cyprus) and in the south of the Arabian Sea. In the Burma-Sunda system in the southeast of the belt, subduction of the Indian Ocean crust continues under the Sunda-Banda island arc, in the extreme south of which, in the area of Timor Island, the collision of the Australian continent with the Eurasian continent began in the mid-Pliocene.
Lit.: Hain V. E. Regional geotectonics: Alpine Mediterranean belt. M., 1984; aka. Tectonics of continents and oceans (year 2000). M., 2001.
A. F. Limonov.
The altitudinal zones of the territory of the Russian Federation are diverse and closely related to latitudinal zones. With altitude, soil and vegetation cover, climate, geomorphological and hydrological processes are transformed.
Changes in the components of nature provoke a change in natural complexes, in the process of which high-altitude zones are formed.
The change in territorial natural complexes depending on altitude is called altitudinal zonation or vertical zonation.
Factors influencing the formation of altitudinal zones
The process of formation of different types of altitudinal zones is influenced by the following factors:
1. Geographical location of the mountain system. The altitude position and number of mountain belts in a particular mountain system depends on the latitude of the territory in which they are located, as well as its position in relation to the nearest oceans and seas.
What mountains form the basis of the Alpine-Himalayan belt?
The altitude of the mountain belts of Russia increases in the direction from north to south.
A striking example of this theory is the height of the Ural mountain system, which is located in the northern part of the state.
The maximum height of the Ural Mountains is 1100 m, while for the Caucasus Mountains this figure serves as an average height. Each mountain system has a different number of altitude zones.
2. Relief.
The distribution of snow cover, the preservation of weathering products, and the level of moisture determine the relief of mountain systems. It is the relief structure of the mountains that influences the formation of natural complexes, in particular vegetation cover.
3. Climate. Climatic conditions are the most important factor due to which the formation of altitudinal zones occurs. With increasing altitude relative to sea level, significant changes occur in the level of solar radiation, temperature conditions, wind strength and direction, and general weather type.
The climate affects the flora and fauna of mountain systems, ultimately creating a certain authentic natural complex.
4. Slope exposure. The exposure of mountain slopes plays a significant role in the distribution of moisture, heat, and weathering processes. In the northern parts of mountain systems, the slopes are located much lower than in the southern parts.
History of the formation of the altitudinal zonation of Russia
The formation of altitudinal zones on the modern territory of the Russian Federation originates in the early Pleistocene, during the interglacial period (Valdai and Moscow glaciations).
Due to repeated climatic transformations, the boundaries of altitudinal zones shifted several times. Scientists have proven that all modern mountain systems in Russia were originally located approximately 6° above their current position.
The altitudinal zonation of Russia led to the formation of mountain complexes - the Urals and the mountains of the south and east of the state (Caucasus, Altai, Baikal mountain ranges, Sayans).
The Ural Mountains have the status of the most ancient mountain system in the world; their formation supposedly began in the Archean period. The mountain systems of the south are much younger, but due to the fact that they are closer to the equator, they significantly predominate in terms of height.
Lecture added 11/07/2012 at 02:47:11
Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) folded (geosynclinal) belt- a fold belt crossing North-West Africa and Eurasia in a latitudinal direction from the Atlantic Ocean to the South China Sea, separating the southern group of ancient platforms, which until the mid-Jurassic period made up the supercontinent Gondwana, from the northern group, which previously made up the continent of Laurasia and the Siberian platform.
Mediterranean fold belt
In the east, the Mediterranean fold belt articulates with the western branch of the Pacific geosynclinal belt.
The Mediterranean belt covers the southern regions of Europe and the Mediterranean, the Maghreb (Northwest Africa), Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Persian mountain systems, the Pamirs, the Himalayas, Tibet, Indochina and the Indonesian islands.
In the middle and central parts of Asia it is almost united with the Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal system, and in the west it is close to the North Atlantic system.
The belt was formed over a long period of time, spanning the period from the Precambrian to the present day.
The Mediterranean geosynclinal belt includes 2 folded regions (mesozoids and alpides), which are divided into systems:
Cm.
Notes
- Tseysler V.M., Karaulov V.B., Uspenskaya E.A., Chernova E.S. Fundamentals of regional geology of the USSR. - M: Nedra, 1984. - 358 p.
Links
Folded belts on the world map
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The Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt begins in the southwest of Europe and stretches in a narrow strip to the east. It includes the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Apennines, Balkans, as well as plains in the interior depressions.
The continuation of the Alpine-Himalayan belt in Asia is the Asia Minor Plateau. In the north, the Pontic ridge stretches in a long chain, in the south - the Taurus Mountains.
The Armenian volcanic highland (5156 m) is located east of the Anatolian Plateau. Here you can see volcanic plateaus, volcanic cones, collapse basins and other forms of volcanic relief. In general, the Armenian Highlands is a huge arch, raised and split into separate parts. The largest area of the huge Iranian Plateau (5604 m) is occupied by the Elborz range, the Zagros Mountains and the vast plains between them. This is an active seismic zone where earthquakes up to magnitude 10 occur.
The mountainous countries of the Hindu Kush, Pamir, Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau are the highest on our planet. The main feature of the relief is its very deep dissection.
The thickness of the earth's crust on the border of the Himalayas and Tibet reaches 70 km, which is approximately 30 km more than in adjacent territories.
The Himalayas include a huge area about 2500 km long and up to 350 km wide. Everest reaches 8848 m. The highest part of the Himalayas is composed of crystalline shales, and Everest is composed of Permian limestones.
One of the most spectacular mountain clusters on the surface of the Earth is the Pamirs. The Karakorum, Kunlun, and Hindu Kush mountain ranges converge in it. The highest mountains and a high-mountain plateau coexist here.
Mountain ranges with sharp jagged ridges separate giant valleys 2 - 3 km deep.
ALPINE-HIMALAYAN MOBILE BELT
In their upper reaches lie huge glaciers and glacial lakes. Scientists believe that these signs indicate a rapid rise of the mountains that continues to this day (I -2 cm per year). Frequent earthquakes, leading to large landslides and destruction of slopes, remind us of this. Geologists suggest that the Pamir mountain cluster was created by the collision of lithospheric plates.
In the southeast, the Alpine-Himalayan belt ends with the Burmese Highlands (4149 m), composed of granites, crystalline shales, limestones and sandstones.
Submeridional ridges are separated here by longitudinal depressions. The axial zones are composed of Mesozoic granites and shales. The Shan Highlands are similar to it.
Thus, the entire Alpine-Himalayan belt is characterized by the dynamism and contrast of tectonic movements (in the Alps the range of movements was 10-12 km; in the Carpathians - 6-7 km; in the Himalayas - 10-12 km).
Although volcanism did not develop in all mountainous countries of this belt, seismic tension is quite high. Zones of “seismic silence” alternate with zones of frequent earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 10 points.