What versions exist about the creation of the pyramids? Pyramid theory. What is a pyramid

Andrey Misyuk,
marketing expert, consultant

Unknown Maslow

Recently, Maslow’s pyramid has been causing more and more criticism from marketers: they say it doesn’t work in real conditions. Some even add: in real Russian conditions (implying that it may work in the USA, where it was created). At the same time, if you ask who has read Maslow’s works, only a few will answer in the affirmative. "What for? – one colleague asked me. “Everything is clear with the pyramid!” It’s clear, it’s clear, but the trick is that Maslow did not draw any pyramid, and its theory is not as simple as we were taught.

The pyramid of needs supposedly by A. Maslow.
This is how it is presented in F. Kotler’s book
"Marketing Fundamentals"

"Anti-Maslow" today

The average marketer knows two things about Abraham Maslow: the “pyramid” of needs and the fact that he changed his last name from the Russian surname Maslov. Moreover, both are discussed with almost equal fervor.

It’s easier to understand the surname: his father came from the Southern provinces of the Russian Empire and really bore the surname Maslov. He emigrated to the USA at the beginning of the last century, and his son, Abraham Maslow, was born in the USA. His last name was “adapted” to sound more familiar to the American ear. Maslow lived and worked in the USA all his life, becoming the president of the American Psychological Association in the late 60s, so he has every right to be called an American scientist.

With the “pyramid” it is much more difficult. Only the lazy did not scold her. V. Tamberg and A. Badin call their article “Anti-Maslow” (however, at the end they make a reservation that perhaps it is not Maslow who is bad, and marketers are in vain trying to use him here and there). On specialized forums and in LiveJournal, the “pyramid” is criticized for the very idea of ​​hierarchy and the impossibility, in principle, of completely satisfying needs once and for all. “The pyramid does not work,” say V. Tsenev, V. Malchikov and others. There is even such an extremely laconic and sharp interpretation of the theory of motivation: “According to Maslow, a person is an “animal that constantly wants something.” (Yu. Kolov).

But here’s the problem: for anyone who has read Maslow’s works on the theory of motivation, at first glance at such texts of accusation it is clear that their authors themselves have not read Maslow’s works. It even reaches the point of absurdity: after criticizing Maslow’s “pyramid,” some authors propose their own theory of motivation, while in the list of references they do not provide references to any of Maslow’s works, thus confessing their own ignorance.

The authors of such works, alas, work not with the primary source, but with a secondary product: they take the popular visualization of the theory in the form of a pyramid and try to apply it wherever they deal with motives, be it the development of an advertising campaign or the need to increase the motivation of company employees. Of course, this way of working cannot be effective because anyone who is familiar only with the “pyramid” misunderstands the meanings that Maslow put into each concept.

Let's go back to the source: let's compare what Maslow's theory is usually criticized for (which postulates of the theory are usually objected to) with what his works actually say.

Maslow as he is

Objection: “Dissatisfaction of physiological needs does not always prevent the emergence of needs at higher levels. When I am very caught up in something, I may not eat for a long time, despite the feeling of hunger.”

In fact: When Maslow talks about the impossibility of higher-level needs arising without satisfying physiological-level needs (say, hunger or thirst), he is talking about conditions that today a person living in a civilized society does not experience. "In most cultures known to uschronic, emergencyhunger ( chronically hungry man) is a rarity rather than a pattern. In any case, what has been said is true for the United States of America. If we hear the average American say “I'm hungry,” we understand that he is experiencing appetite rather than hunger. He can experience real hunger only in some extreme, extraordinary circumstances, no more than two or three times in his entire life.”. (Quoted from the book: Abraham Maslow. Motivation and personality. - K. PSYLIB, 2004.)

The physiological needs that Maslow talks about are extreme needs, extreme conditions. “In practice, this means that a person living in extreme need, a person deprived of all the joys of life, will be driven primarily by the needs of the physiological level. If a person has nothing to eat and if at the same time he lacks love and respect, then first of all he will strive to satisfy his physical hunger, and not his emotional one... A person who feels mortal hunger, will not be interested in anything other than food". Please note – “deadly hunger”, not “appetite”!

Thus, often the meaning that the author of the theory puts into the concept of “physiological needs” is misunderstood.

Objection: “Needs are not really organized hierarchically or sequentially. They exist, as it were, on one plane, chaotically manifesting themselves in this or that person.”

In fact: we remember only this fragment of the theory: “But what happens to his desires when he has plenty bread when he is full, when his stomach does not require food? And this is what happens - a person immediately reveals other (higher) needs, and already these needs take over his consciousness, taking the place of physical hunger. As soon as he satisfies these needs, their place is immediately taken by new (even higher) needs, and so on ad infinitum. This is what I mean when I say that human needs are organized hierarchically.”

However, in theory there is also this fragment: “ When we talk about hierarchy<…>, one may get the impression that we are talking about some strictly fixed structure of needs. But in reality the hierarchy of needs is not at all as stable as it might seem at first glance. <...>Speaking about the hierarchy of needs, we only state that a person who has two unsatisfied needs will prefer to first satisfy more basic, and therefore a more pressing need. But this in no way means that this person’s behavior will be determined precisely by this need. I consider it necessary to emphasize once again that a person's needs and desires are not the only determinants of his behavior» .

Moreover, Maslow introduces the concept of needs reversal: “For some people, for example, the need for self-affirmation manifests itself as more pressing than the need for love.<…> Of all cases of reversion, perhaps those that are associated with higher social norms, with higher ideals and values ​​have the highest value. People devoted to such ideals and values ​​are ready to endure hardship, torment and even death for their sake.”

So, the general idea of ​​the excessive “rigidity” of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is incorrect. And it is quite difficult to argue against the thesis of hierarchy: an extreme feeling of hunger in the overwhelming majority of cases will still determine behavior more than a lack of recognition.

Objection: “Not a single need can be satisfied once and for all, so how can they replace one another?!”

In fact: The best way to respond here is with a quote. “I am afraid that our reasoning may push the reader’s thoughts in the wrong direction. It may seem that the hierarchy of the five groups of needs we described indicates a specific dependence - as soon as one need is satisfied, another immediately takes its place. This may lead to the following erroneous conclusion: the emergence of a need is possible only after one hundred percent satisfaction of the underlying need.

In fact, almost any healthy representative of our society can be said to be both satisfied and unsatisfied in all of his basic needs. Our idea of ​​the hierarchy of needs will be more realistic if we introduce the concept of a measure of need satisfaction and say that lower needs are always satisfied to a greater extent than higher ones. If, for the sake of clarity, we use specific figures, albeit conditional ones, it turns out that the average citizen’s physiological needs are satisfied, for example, by 85%, the need for security is satisfied by 70%, the need for love - by 50%, the need for self-esteem - by 40%, and the need for self-actualization - by 10%. The term “measure of need satisfaction” allows us to better understand the thesis about the actualization of a higher need after the satisfaction of a lower one.” And at this point Maslow’s theory was simplified extremely.

Objection: “It is impossible to classify needs, that’s why the “pyramid” doesn’t work.”

In fact: Maslow opposed the idea of ​​creating a catalog (or list) of needs because he believed it was impossible to do. So, in this case it would be implied that all needs are equal, but this is not so. This would imply that each need lives in isolation from the other, which is also false. And most importantly, such a classification would be made on the basis of external manifestations of need satisfaction - on behavior. But it is quite difficult to say unequivocally what motive caused this or that behavior, and even the person himself rarely realizes the real reason for his actions.

“It is obvious that behavior as such cannot form the basis for the classification of motives, since, as I have already said, one and the same behavioral act can be dictated by very different desires. <…> The search for food, subsequent chewing and absorption of it can be dictated not so much by the need for food, but by the need for safety. Behind sexual desire, courtship and subsequent copulation, there may be a need for sexual satisfaction and a need for self-affirmation.<…> Thus, having consistently excluded all bases of classification, except for fundamental, and, as a rule, unconscious goals and needs, we are forced to conclude that they are the only reliable basis for building a theory of motivation».

Thus, according to Maslow, if it is possible to make a classification of motives, then in the most general form and in no case based on behavioral acts.

Objection: “A person at one specific moment in time experiences not one need, but several needs of “different levels.”

In fact: Maslow says that there cannot be only one need; he speaks in terms of "multiple motivation of behavior" and "multiple determination of behavior": “...behavior, as a rule, is determined not by one individual need, but by a combination of several or all basic needs. If we are faced with a behavioral act in which we can identify a single determinant, a single motive, then we need to understand that we are dealing with an exception.”

Maslow as retold by Kotler

How did it happen that from a deep and multifaceted theory, most marketers took away only the “pyramid”, which, by the way, is not in any of Maslow’s works? Yes, there is a concept of a hierarchy of needs, but not in the form of a pyramid and without any graphical representation. Now it is difficult to find out who was the first to draw the pyramid. They say that this was done by followers of Maslow or popularizers of his theory, seeking to give the theory of motivation a visual and applied meaning.

It is also likely that the spread of an extremely simplified version of Maslow’s theory throughout the CIS was facilitated by Philip Kotler. His books are our most popular textbooks on marketing. Here's how Kotler retells Maslow's theory:

“Abraham Maslow tried to explain why people have different needs at different times. Why does one person spend a lot of time and energy on self-preservation, while another spends a lot of time on gaining the respect of others? The scientist believes that human needs are arranged in order of hierarchical importance from most to least urgent. Developed by Maslowthe hierarchy is shown in the figure. In order of importance, the needs are arranged in the following order: physiological needs, self-preservation needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-affirmation needs. A person will strive to satisfy the most important needs first. As soon as he manages to satisfy some important need, it temporarily ceases to be a driving motive. At the same time, an impulse appears to satisfy the next most important need.

For example, a starving person (need No. 1) is not interested in events happening in the world of art (need No. 5), nor in how others look at him and to what extent they are respected (needs No. 3 and No. 4), nor in pure whether he breathes air (need No. 2). But as the next most important need is satisfied, the next one comes to the fore.” (Philip Kotler. Marketing Basics. – M.: Progress, 1991.)

Not a word more is said about Maslow's theory. We see that the theory is extremely simplified and the sequential movement along the hierarchy of needs is presented more rigidly than in Maslow.

Why the pyramid doesn't work

There remains one more reproach to Maslow’s theory, which we did not voice above: “His theory cannot be applied in practice.”

In fact This is true. Maslow's theory was not created for marketers. It arose because its author was looking for answers to questions related to human motives, to which neither Freudianism nor behaviorism provided an answer at that time. And, although the theory provides deep insight into the motives of human actions, it is more of a “philosophy” than a methodology. It needs to be studied by any marketer, advertiser, or PR specialist for a general understanding of what motivates people and how diverse their needs are and how complexly they are interconnected, but it is impossible to make a methodology out of this. And first of all, because it was not created as a technique, its tasks were different.

The second reason why the pyramid is not suitable for marketers: for the marketer, the emphasis is on behavior - getting the consumer to take an action. Maslow’s theory studies motives, and all that it says about the relationship with behavior is that it is extremely difficult to determine what motives are behind a particular behavioral act, that the act itself can be dictated by several motives, and one cannot judge motives by their external manifestations.

The third argument relates to the sociocultural context: a marketer works in a modern civilized society, where, in principle, physiological needs and self-preservation needs are satisfied (remember: Maslow understands these needs as extreme states, and not states of daily “appetite” or the desire to hide from the rain). Therefore, it is fundamentally wrong to consider that a detergent has a greater chance of success than beer just because it gets rid of bacteria (safety!), and beer solves issues of social intimacy and, accordingly, is higher in the hierarchy of needs.

A strange situation turned out: marketers took a psychological theory and tried to apply it in marketing (where it was not created for), and when it didn’t work, they accused Maslow that his theory was “absurd,” “outdated,” “doesn’t work for us.” " And the only question is whether the tool is used correctly - it needs to be used in the areas for which the tool is intended. And criticize by reading the primary sources.

For reference

Abraham Harold Maslow born in Brooklyn, New York in 1908. He was the son of emigrants from Russia. At the University of Wisconsin, Maslow completed a formal academic course in psychology, receiving a bachelor's degree in 1930, a master of arts in 1031, and a doctorate in 1934. After receiving his doctorate, he worked with renowned learning theorist E.L. Thorndike at Columbia University in New York. He then moved to Brooklyn College, where he worked for 14 years. In 1951, Maslow was appointed chairman of the psychology department at Brandeis University. He remained in this post until 1961 and was then a professor of psychology there. In 1967, Maslow became president of the American Psychological Association. In 1969, he left Brandeis to work for the W. P. Loughlin Charitable Foundation in Menlow Park, California. Maslow died in 1970 at the age of 62.

His works: Religions, Values ​​and Summit Experiences (1964), Eupsyche: A Diary (1965), Psychology of Science: Reconnaissance (1966), Motivation and Personality (1967), Towards a Psychology of Being (1968), New Dimensions of Human Nature (1971, a collection of articles published earlier), In Memory of Abraham Maslow (1972, published posthumously, with the participation of his wife).

The construction of the Egyptian pyramids to this day remains one of the most mysterious topics for humanity. There is a lot of controversy about who built these beautiful structures and how. Thus, on the issue of the origin of objects, several assumptions can be made:

1. The first and most common version is based on the thesis that numerous slaves were involved in the construction of the pyramids. They were forced to lift the blocks to the top along specially constructed ramps. At the same time, according to the theory, the stones were processed with copper tools, and lifts were also used for transportation;
2. The second version, like all subsequent theories, is an assumption with a fantastic slant. The point is that the pyramids are the result of the influence of the energy of the Atlanteans, who forced the stones to move only by the power of thought;
3. The third hypothesis is, of course, connected with the activities of aliens, who in ancient times built the pyramids for their specific purposes;
4. They also say that at the time of the construction of the pyramids there was a special human civilization in which all people were at least 2.5 m tall.

These are not all existing assumptions, but the essence of the rest is not much different from those given above.

As we can see, one can speculate almost endlessly on the topic of the origin of the pyramids, since concrete evidence in favor of any one theory has not yet been presented. However, no less interesting and controversial is the question of the technology of construction of the Egyptian pyramids. There is also a certain discussion here, but all hypotheses are substantiated exclusively from a technical point of view, which allows, at a minimum, not to doubt the possibility of their real existence.

In this article we will look at the main technologies for building pyramids in Ancient Egypt, noting the arguments given in their favor, as well as the existing shortcomings. But first, let us note the main features common to the vast majority of assumptions about a specific technology:

• An indisputable fact is that the Egyptians' technology improved over time. This is confirmed by real facts obtained during studies of pyramids of different years of construction. It has been established that later designs are characterized by a different, improved technology;
• Most theories are based on the fact that for construction, the Egyptians cut down blocks in quarries. In this case, mainly copper tools were used, for example, chisels, chisels, punches, etc.

In view of the latter circumstance, significant differences between the theories are observed in matters of transportation of blocks and methods of their installation.

Now let's look in detail at the specific technologies in accordance with which the pyramids of Egypt may have been built.

From Herodotus to the present day

The only source that contains at least some information about the construction of pyramids in Ancient Egypt is the descriptions of Herodotus. Actually, the first theory is based on these descriptions. So, the main provisions of this technology:

1. Stones for construction were obtained from quarries, where they were hollowed out with tools;
2. Transportation of stones to the construction site was carried out using the manual power of slaves, having previously laid a wide, durable road to the destination;
3. The actual construction of the pyramid was carried out in stages, using ledges. Initially, the lowest stones were laid, which could be done without any additional devices. For all subsequent steps of the pyramid, wooden platforms were used. Moreover, upon completion of the construction of one stage, the same platform was simply moved to the next stage.

Now we will dwell in detail on each of the stages of construction. First of all, let's talk about the material used.

About stones

So, in accordance with the most common opinion about the technology of building pyramids, the material used was stones mined in quarries. The composition of the blocks was predominantly limestone, and, therefore, they were quite soft. This made it possible to process them with copper tools.

Along with materials from limestone rock, harder stones were also used: basalt, quartzite, granite. They were processed with more powerful tools. Thus, cutting such stones and drilling them were carried out using abrasives (for example, quartz sand). And the hieroglyphs were applied using quartz cutters. Interestingly, granite, which is the most durable, was split using thermal shock. This happened in the following way: a natural crack was discovered in the rock, the area around which heated up and then cooled sharply. As a result, the rock split.

In favor of this theory, its supporters refer to the mass of stones from which the pyramids are built. The fact is that their weight, as a rule, is no more than several tons. And this allows us to speak about a high level of their transportability.

By the way, adherents of the classical theory also justify the reasons for choosing the shape and size of the blocks for the pyramids. In their opinion, reducing the size would significantly complicate the processing process.
However, the assumption of this technology also has a significant drawback: if we agree that the construction of the pyramids was carried out this way, then it is impossible to imagine how labor-intensive the whole process was. However, the time frame for the construction of the Egyptian pyramids was really impressive: according to the same Herodotus, the road for transporting stone blocks alone took 10 years to build.

About delivery

It is generally accepted that it is incredibly difficult to deliver building material directly to the site of the future pyramid. And it is precisely by the methods of delivering stones that the individual directions of the classical theory of construction technology differ from each other:

1. The first assumption is based on frescoes often found in ancient Egyptian temples. They usually depict people dragging huge statues of certain rulers behind them. In accordance with this, some researchers have calculated the possibility of moving stone blocks in this way. The essence of this method comes down to the following: several people (the number depended on the mass of the stone) pull behind them a large sled, on which a block (or several blocks) is placed. It is believed that the Egyptians poured water on the runners of such sleds to ensure sufficient glide.

In parallel with this, followers of the hypothesis claim, a technique based on the use of rollers was also used. In Egypt, paved brick roads were quite developed, along which it was more convenient not to drag sleighs with blocks, but to roll the blocks themselves on rollers.

In principle, such assumptions are quite realistic and feasible from the point of view of physics. However, there is one nuance that researchers do not take into account: in some pyramids there are huge, powerful and massive stones, the mass of which reaches 300 tons. Their movement by dragging is absolutely impossible;

2. The following method of delivering blocks was proposed relatively recently. It is based on cradle mechanisms found during excavations of some sanctuaries of a later time. It was experimentally proven that it is possible to move a block placed on four mechanisms by rolling.

However, no concrete evidence has yet been found that the Egyptians used cradle mechanisms specifically for blocks. In addition, this hypothesis is characterized by the same drawback as the previous one: blocks of large mass cannot be moved using such mechanisms. In addition, even the lightest (compared to other stones) block cannot be rolled on sand, and, meanwhile, roads did not lead directly to the construction sites;

3. Finally, there is another point of view on one of the components of the pyramid construction process - the delivery of materials. So, a number of experts believe that the stone blocks were moved using special platforms from which the road was built. These platforms were quarter circles, thanks to which the center of gravity of the block was maintained at the same level. This design allows you to easily transport even fairly heavy stones, especially when it comes to lowering them from a slope, for example, from a quarry.

About construction

How did the pyramids of Egypt appear: were construction carried out exclusively at the expense of slaves or not? How did the Egyptians lift blocks to such heights? And today there is no unity on these issues, even within the framework of the classical approach.

Taking into account the fact that the people of Ancient Egypt did not have all the modern means of lifting stones to the appropriate height, the most optimal way, in the opinion of most researchers, was to make a ramp. Of course, objectively this was not the easiest method, since the ramp needed to be long and high.

However, several years ago, a different option for building a ramp was proposed - inside the pyramid, which caused lively discussions. The essence of this method is that during the construction of the pyramid, an internal ramp was used, installed along its edges and shallow enough to allow the blocks to be lifted. The internal design of the pyramids is such that such a method could well be used, but a number of important caveats should be made:

• only one ramp can be made inside, which means that the construction time of the pyramids had to be simply enormous, because the blocks would have to be raised sequentially one after another, in a chain;
• the use of an internal ramp makes it impossible to push the block from behind, only by pulling it behind you, and this is very difficult when turning;
• the ramp creates the so-called tunnel effect, that is, in the event of an emergency, all the people inside the pyramid would be doomed to certain death;
• Such a design requires sufficient lighting, and for this either windows were needed or torches were required. But there are no windows in the Egyptian pyramids, and the use of torches in the absence of proper ventilation is impossible in practice;
• Finally, a significant drawback of the internal ramp theory is that it cannot be made at the very top, therefore, the last blocks were raised in some other way.

Taking these shortcomings into account, the already mentioned technology for using semicircular platforms was proposed. According to it, to lift a block, it was enough just to pull it up on a rope, and it itself, rolling along the platform, rose to the required height. After completing one level, the platforms were moved to the next and so on until the very top.

It was concrete!

But we considered only one hypothetical construction technology. It is not by chance that it is called classical, since it prevails among researchers. But we were able to verify that the classical hypothesis about the construction of the pyramids itself is not holistic; it consists of many multidirectional theories and ideas.

In contrast to the first technology, about 40 years ago, a different hypothesis was put forward, the main thesis of which was the statement about a completely different composition of the stones: it was assumed that they consist of concrete (made from limestone) and stone chips.

Taking this into account, the construction technology changes significantly: for example, on the very first tier, a rectangular formwork is constructed into which a kind of concrete is poured. The frozen blocks of the lower row act as formwork for the blocks of the upper row.

This theory really demonstrates the possibility of creating pyramids of such sizes, and also explains why the individual blocks fit together so perfectly.

However, this theory has many weaknesses:

• first of all, the very fact of the possibility of the Egyptians making concrete is called into question, since they knew mainly gypsum mortar;
• quarries were discovered in which traces of block cutting work were preserved;
• finally, in the structure of the pyramid itself there are still only external defects that are unacceptable when using concrete.

Conclusion

Of course, there are numerous other assumptions, but they relate mainly to certain aspects of construction, for example, issues of stone finishing or masonry features. In relation to the entire process, today there are two main and competing technologies, each of which explains some of the secrets of the construction of the pyramids, but does not correlate with others at all. Whether a third technology will appear or one of the existing ones will be finally proven is a matter of time.

Almost every representative of modern society has at least once in his life wondered about who or with whose help great historical monuments were built, what tools, tools and mechanisms our ancestors used during the construction process, and are there any answers to the mysteries of the pyramids of antiquity?

To begin with, we suggest that you first familiarize yourself with some concepts, moments in history, as well as the opinions of various people.

What is a pyramid?

From the point of view of architectural science, a pyramid is a structure that is a polyhedron, usually with four triangular faces. To ancient people, buildings of this kind served as tombs (mausoleums), temples, or simply monuments.

The history of the pyramids begins around the 3rd millennium BC. It is these numbers that confuse numerous historians. It is difficult to believe that people had advanced tools at that time, if the descendants of some of them are still engaged in hunting and gathering, which is characteristic of the primitive level of development.

Modern scientists identify several main concentration points of the ancient pyramids.

Egypt

It's no secret that “the land of the pyramids” is the second name for Egypt. This metaphor is well deserved. It was here that the very first pyramids in the world were built. They are located on the Giza plateau, on the territory of an ancient cemetery.

Only a few of the pyramids of Ancient Egypt have survived to this day. These are the pyramids of Cheops, Mikerin and Khafre. According to scientists, there used to be many more of them.

The Pyramid of Cheops is considered to be the most important, because it is the tallest pyramid. Formally, it is recognized as one of the wonders of the world. Its height is 147 meters, which is comparable to the height of five ten-story buildings. The sides of the bases, in turn, are about 230 meters long. The area of ​​the structure is 50 square kilometers.

The great Napoleon was amazed at the size of the Cheops pyramid. According to his saying, the stone blocks with which the Egyptian pyramids were built would be enough to completely surround France with a three-meter wall.

The Pyramid of Khafre was built as a tomb for the son of Cheops. Its dimensions are slightly smaller than the previous one.

It is worth noting that this burial complex, unlike other pyramids, includes the famous Great Sphinx. According to one of the legends, the Sphinx's gaze is directed towards the depths of which, according to ancient legends, secret knowledge is imprisoned.

It is considered the smallest and “youngest”. Its height is 62 meters, and the length of the sides is equal to the length of a football field. There are suggestions that the pyramid was previously slightly larger, since the structure was originally covered with a red granite lining, which may have been lost as a result of Mameluke raids. During the construction of this pyramid, Menkura ordered the use of stone blocks much larger in size than in the pyramids of Chefren and Cheops. He also allowed workers to process the stone less carefully. The fact is that the pharaoh wanted to complete the tomb before his death and tried in every way to speed up the construction process. However, Menkur could not live to see its completion.

Mesopotamia

It would seem that from Mesopotamia to Egypt is not so far, the conditions for construction and materials are practically the same, therefore, their approach to architecture should not be particularly different. But it was not there.

The pyramids of Mesopotamia are unique religious structures - ziggurats (translated from Babylonian as “mountain top”). Their external structure resembles the Egyptian pyramids, but, unlike them, the levels of the ziggurat were connected using stairs, and along the edge of the wall, in turn, there were special ramps (gentle slopes) that led to the temple.

Another feature of the structure of ziggurats is the broken line of the wall, formed with the help of protrusions.

If it was necessary to have window openings in the structure, they were created, as a rule, on the upper part of the wall. They were a narrow gap.

It is noteworthy that the peoples of Mesopotamia did not use ziggurats as funeral structures for the reason that they did not see any connection between the preservation of the body of the deceased and his gaining immortality in the next world, as the ancient Egyptians did.

Sudan

At one time, the Sudanese kings revived the ancient Egyptian tradition associated with the use of pyramids as burial places for the rulers of the country.

By and large, the cultures of Ancient Egypt and Sudan were closely related. Consequently, architecture also had a lot in common.

In Ancient Sudan, there were the following types of pyramids: classical structures (based on the principle of Egyptian structure) and mastabas, shaped like a truncated pyramid. In contrast to Egyptian ones, Sudanese buildings have a steeper slope.

The most famous pyramids are the cities of Meroe. In the second half of the sixth century BC, the capital was moved here, which a little later also became the cultural and religious center of the state.

Modern scientists have counted several dozen pyramids in Meroe that have survived to this day. In 2011, these archaeological structures were officially declared a World Heritage Site.

Nigeria

Here, according to custom, pyramids were erected in honor of the god Al. Ancient people believed that it was possible to contact the deity through these structures. They believed that his abode was located on the tops of the pyramids.

The official opening of these religious buildings took place only in the 30s of the last century. Then, the famous archaeologist Jones took several photographs of the pyramids for his own archive (however, they were published only eighty years later).

In his opinion, the buildings of Nigeria were built much earlier than the pyramids of Ancient Egypt, and also that the local civilization is much older than many others. Unfortunately, the pyramids have survived to this day in a rather dilapidated condition.

Mexico

Since ancient times, this country was inhabited by a people to whom modern historians attribute a rich mythology and cultural heritage - the Aztecs.

Although the heyday of civilization dates back to the 14th-16th centuries, the Aztec pyramids were built long before that. For example, the famous one, which ranks third in the world in size and is only seven meters lower than the tomb of Cheops, according to historians, was erected approximately 150 BC.

The pyramids of Teotihuacan, in turn, are considered a monumental attempt to realize an eternal blessed utopia.

For seven centuries, the Aztec pyramids were a kind of guiding star, whose radiance called all those eager to taste the noble dream. It is believed that the city of Teotihuacan was obsessed with the idea of ​​order and regularity. However, love and harmony did not prevent human blood from flowing through the blades of barbarity and inhumanity. The Aztecs mercilessly killed anyone they disliked and sacrificed them to the gods.

The pyramids, where these sacrifices were carried out, had some similarities with the Mesopotamian ziggurats: they also had a “stepped” shape, and there was also a ramp (it was the only one leading to the very top of the structure).

Unfortunately, not all Aztec pyramids were able to survive to this day. Most of them were destroyed during the invasion of Mexico by European colonialists in the 16th century.

China

Of course, some readers were very surprised when they saw this subtitle. After all, they practically don’t talk or write about Chinese pyramids.

In total, scientists count about a hundred such structures. They acted as burial mounds for the rulers of famous Chinese dynasties. The shape of the pyramid had a truncated appearance (like the Sudanese scale). Due to the characteristics of the local flora, some large structures took on the appearance of overgrown hills.

The origin of the pyramids is quite interesting. The fact is that in written sources that date back to the fifth century BC, the buildings are already called “ancient”. Did the pyramids really appear much earlier than the time the document was written? It should be admitted that humanity is unlikely to know about this. A detailed study of structures, as is done in Egypt, is practically impossible: excavations in the areas where they are located are often prohibited by local authorities.

North America

In the 11th century, when endless wars were fought in Europe, on the other side of the hemisphere, in the Mississippi Valley, the Indian civilization peacefully developed and flourished. They quickly built homes for themselves and developed infrastructure.

Also, the ancient Indians had a habit of building special mounds with an area of ​​approximately several dozen football fields. Here they did almost everything: celebrated holidays, held religious and sporting events, etc. Quite often, the mounds also served people as mounds (burial places). One of the largest concentrations is Cahokia - a group consisting of 109 mounds. It has also been declared a World Heritage Site.

Who built them and why?

People have been puzzling over this question for many years. It is unlikely that anyone will be able to wrap their heads around the fact that building pyramids at the level at which ancient people did it, even today, is a rather complex process, given modern methods and technologies. How, for example, did the Egyptians drag stone blocks weighing 7-10 tons to the height of a ten-story building, and how did they manage to process them perfectly (sometimes even a blade cannot squeeze between loose blocks)?

Currently, there are several theories and hypotheses that are the most plausible.

I. The existence of a highly developed proto-civilization

Everyone is accustomed to thinking that man today is a highly developed and enlightened being, sometimes subject to Mother Nature herself, but many thousands of years ago people were savages living to satisfy their primitive needs. However, few people thought that once on our planet there already existed a similar civilization with a high level of intelligence and technology. Maybe they also knew much of what we are rediscovering today?

According to one version, this civilization may be the Atlanteans, who either built the pyramids themselves using technologies inaccessible to others, or helped to do so.

According to another, ancient people were able to find and quickly adapt for use the technologies of previously existing but disappeared highly developed civilizations.

Another version says that ancient people (the same Egyptians) themselves were at a fairly high level of development, both mentally and technologically.

All this can be refuted by a single fact - the ancient manuscripts never mentioned contacts with any super-civilizations.

II. Alien Intervention

This theory of the origin of the pyramids is the most widespread and discussed. According to it, representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations helped people build various kinds of structures.

First, let's figure out why suddenly aliens from outer space (if they actually existed) would help people who were underdeveloped at that time build the pyramids of the world?

According to one version, the structures served representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations as a source of energy, still incomprehensible to humanity, or as intermediaries for communication between planets (the rather strange shape of the pyramid is also attributed to this as an architectural structure in general).

There is another theory. It lies in the fact that ancient people, coming into contact with aliens, could take them for gods.

The aliens, with their technologies and “chariots of fire,” had a huge number of opportunities, which people took advantage of, turning to representatives of highly developed civilizations for help in such matters as the construction of pyramids.

Many ufologists interested in the question of who built the pyramids are interested in the connection between the location of the pyramids and the star map. In their opinion, this connection is direct, since, for example, the famous Giza complex in Egypt, which we already talked about today, corresponds to the three largest stars located in the constellation Orion. Perhaps this pattern is based on the fact that this constellation was symbolic for the Egyptians: it personified the god Osiris, one of the most important deities of Ancient Egypt.

But another question immediately arises: why did the Egyptians associate the names of the gods with the stars? According to the same experts, perhaps this was some kind of connection between these same “gods” and their abode.

As another proof of the presence of aliens on Earth, one can cite various drawings that depict strange circles, and sometimes even humanoid creatures. Are these drawings depicting real creatures or are they simply the works of an artist with a rich imagination?

It is worth mentioning the ancient Egyptian manuscripts, which speak of a certain war of powerful Gods. What or who could people call Gods, what was this war like, did it exist in reality or is it just a fairy-tale myth? The answers to these questions have long been buried in oblivion.

III. Skeptical theory

According to it, ancient people were able to independently build the pyramids of the world. According to scientists who adhere to this point of view, people could have enough incentives to build such structures: religious considerations, the desire to receive a living for the work they do, the desire to stand out in terms of unique architecture.

The ancient historian Herodotus was the first Greek scientist who, in his writings, was able to describe in detail the famous pyramids of Giza. In his opinion, to build a structure of this type in a short time (if you believe the descriptions, the period of construction of one pyramid was, as a rule, 15-20 years) it was necessary to use at least one hundred thousand workers.

This does not include the unpaid labor of slaves and prisoners, who died in the thousands at construction sites from disease, hunger and thirst, unbearable work, and the anger of their owners. In contrast, stonemasons, architects, and builders received money for building ancient pyramids.

Ordinary peasants could also be involved in the construction of the pyramids. This process could take the form of a kind of labor conscription, that is, the same people were called to work after a certain period of time (most likely once every year or two for a period of several weeks). Thus, the Egyptians were able to easily renew their workforce.

It is possible that some kind of “competition” was held between the workers involved in the construction of the pyramids, the winners of which could be determined by the amount of work done both in a group and individually, its quality, etc. Those who were able to stand out among others received various incentives.

As proof of Herodotus' theory, one can cite multiple burials of workers and architects discovered by archaeologists during excavations, as well as ramps near unfinished pyramids, along which stone blocks were most likely raised. From the same burials one can judge how difficult the work of the workers building the structures of that time was. This conclusion can be made by examining the remains of ancient people: numerous traces of healed fractures were found on their bones.

Moreover, components of a device have been found that is most likely a prototype of the modern one. It is unlikely that the construction of the pyramids was accelerated and facilitated only through the use of this mechanism. It is possible that there were many other devices.

Skeptics also have certain views on the technique of building pyramids.

Let's start discussing the process from the very first stage of creating this kind of structures - the production of building blocks. It has been scientifically proven that those who built the pyramids used “soft” limestone as the main materials, as well as harder ones: granite, quartzite and basalt. However, opinions on exactly how construction began are somewhat divided.

According to one version, the extraction of blocks was carried out in special quarries located near the places where the pyramids were built. The flaw in the theory is that using these quarries would only complicate the construction process and make transporting the blocks a practically impossible process.

Another hypothesis is that the blocks were cast on site from limestone concrete. Its adherents are confident that those who built the pyramids knew how to make concrete mixtures from various hard rocks. However, there are also opponents to this theory of the construction of ancient structures. They argue their point of view by citing the fact that in some areas where pyramids were built in large numbers, there are simply no resources to create a binder concrete solution.

Speaking about the hypotheses for moving blocks, it is worth mentioning that here, too, the opinions of experts are divided.

The most common version in this regard is the drawing of blocks. As proof of this theory, historians cite one of the ancient Egyptian frescoes, which depicts about one hundred and fifty people pulling the monument of Djehutihotep the Second. In this case, workers use special drag sleds. It is noteworthy that their runners, as depicted in the fresco, are watered with water, which was most likely used to reduce friction and facilitate the process. This hypothesis can be refuted by the fact that the process is quite labor-intensive and it is unlikely that those who built the pyramids could do it quickly.

Another theory discussed is the use of various kinds of mechanisms by ancient people. The most famous hypothetical devices are the so-called "cradle" mechanism, square wheel technology (using a special track), internal ramp, etc. But, according to many, these technologies were not yet available at that time.

Summarizing

Based on the above, we can conclude that the question of who built the pyramids and what was their main purpose remained relevant at all times. Most likely, humanity will never know this again. Over time, everything disappears into oblivion: manuscripts, frescoes, drawings. And there are few such historical sources these days.

It is obvious that the mysteries of the pyramids will never leave a person indifferent.

Every year, dozens of new theories appear about who built the Egyptian pyramids, but the main versions have long been strengthened among historians and scientists.

For centuries, people have been trying to unravel the greatest mystery of history and determine who built the Egyptian pyramids. There are dozens of different versions, each of which may seem crazy to some, but very reliable to others.

Today, 35 pyramid complexes can be found in Egypt. The basis is made up of the three largest pyramids of the Giza desert, the history of which goes back centuries. The rest of the pyramids are small, since they were built much later in the form of tombs for the pharaohs, but even they carry great historical significance.

Official version of Egyptologists

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote a lot about the pyramids. It is his explanation of the appearance of the pyramids in Egypt that is considered the most reliable and official. Pharaoh Cheops ordered his slaves to build the tallest pyramid in history. In order to begin work, people first had to build a road from the rocks to the construction site. It was planned to move large rocky blocks along this road, which were the main element of construction. The road was laid for ten whole years, and the construction of the pyramid was completed after another twenty.

Workers changed every three months. One hundred thousand workers created the 147 m high pyramid and did not even suspect that one day it would become a wonder of the world. Presumably, the Egyptians lifted the blocks using homemade crane-like installations. Hand power and bull power were also used.

This information is considered official, but even it cannot be completely genuine, since Herodotus lived long after the civilization of the Egyptians was completed, and he received his knowledge from the ancient priests. One way or another, the pyramids were built by people, the question is how exactly they did it. Scientists are still giving new versions of what happened and are looking for answers to the questions: how did people, who did not have any equipment at hand, break off huge blocks from the rocks and do it as smoothly as possible? What was used to lift these blocks to the highest levels of the pyramid? These and other questions still remain unanswered.

Other theories

People who believe in gods and spiritual power are convinced that the pyramids are the work of saints who were revered in Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians believed in spirits and constantly said prayers and mantras, creating a kind of psychic energy. It was this energy that created the force that was capable of moving mountains. This can be compared with today's psychics, who believe that they are able to move objects with the power of thought and have the gift of telekinesis. But even if we assume for a second that such an option is possible, the granite blocks from which the pyramids are built weigh so much that you need to have enormous strength to create such large-scale structures from them.

Another theory is put forward by scientists who refuse to believe that the ancient Egyptians were able to build structures of such a scale without the use of any technology. The theory of a highly developed civilization is not accepted by the world community as official, but it is the only one that has even the slightest scientific explanation. The pyramids were built with such incredible precision that it was necessary to have devices or means that even in our time are not so easy to create. The slabs were huge, and at that time there were no materials for processing them, since the hardest metal discovered at that time was bronze - it was impossible to split a granite slab with it, and even give it a perfectly smooth appearance. This is where the theory comes from that in those days the Egyptians had highly developed technology, which helped them create today's wonder of the world.

The most incredible versions

Thousands of scientists, psychics and historians from different countries have been trying to unravel the mysteries of the pyramids for years. In the process, many versions arise that seem ridiculous and absurd. People, having been inside the pyramids and convinced that these structures are many times superior to many modern buildings, cease to understand what is happening. Most often they refer to some otherworldly forces, they say that the Egyptian wonder of the world is the work of extraterrestrial civilizations and aliens. People are looking for answers to their questions, not even realizing how ridiculous some versions look.

One of these versions is surprisingly popular. Esotericists around the world are confident that the pyramids were built long before the emergence of Egyptian civilization by Atlanteans - half people, half gods. According to the theory, the Atlanteans were so powerful that they were able to call upon the power of the gods and take their natural energy to create large-scale structures - the pyramids. After the demigods felt the power that had fallen into their hands, they began to abuse the energy given to them and use it for their own purposes. The gods became angry and sank Atlantis under water along with the Atlanteans. The only thing that remained untouched were the pyramids. They outlived their creators, and the Egyptians did not build them, but only reconstructed them.

The mystery of the pyramids is incredibly interesting. You can think and reflect on it endlessly; it is not for nothing that scientists spend their entire lives studying this topic and trying to get closer to the solution. None of the above theories is completely realistic - there will always be questions about each of them, but each of them also gives us incredible food for thought.

The Egyptian pyramids, built by aliens, according to supporters of this point of view, were a spaceport where their spaceships landed, including to refuel.

At the top of the Cheops pyramid there is now a flat area. According to scientists, there was a triangular pyramidion stone there, but perhaps it was not there at all. It’s hard to imagine that he disappeared so easily, because his weight was about one hundred tons.

Why don’t aliens now use the pyramids for their intended purpose? Experts agree that although extraterrestrial beings continue to visit our planet, they no longer need the pyramids. Due to technological progress, they now have other ships that do not need such a spaceport. Thus, Egyptian pyramids- this is a kind of outdated space equipment of aliens.

Signs have been preserved in the pyramids indicating the placement of special alien technology there. Thus, in the Great Gallery there are 28 recesses on the walls. One gets the impression that they housed something, perhaps some mechanisms and instruments, with the help of which, in particular, energy was generated for the functioning of ships.

Where did all these devices go? Most likely, they were destroyed by the aliens themselves. After the invention of more advanced means of transportation, the old technology was no longer needed.

In the middle of the pyramid, in the royal room, there is a large granite box. Perhaps alien fuel was stored in it. There is also an opinion that various chemical processes took place in this room; it is no coincidence that this room is decorated with granite, not limestone, because granite is much harder and more reliable. The room is completely sealed, except for two tunnels, which scientists believe are ventilation shafts. But is it?

The tunnels have entrance holes 20 x 20 cm, they are located on the walls at a distance of 1 m from the floor. Is it a coincidence that the top of the granite box is at the same height? Another oddity is that the walls of the tunnels are made of large stone slabs, which suggests that something other than water flowed through them. It can be concluded that fuel was supplied upward through the tunnels to refuel the ships.

At the bottom of the pyramid there is a room with an unleveled bottom. This is strange, because all the other rooms are perfectly aligned. Perhaps there was a warehouse in it, so they did not bring it to perfect condition. The room has a tunnel leading upstairs. Most likely, an elevator was moving through the tunnel, transporting substances from the warehouse.

And the aliens moved inside the pyramids using special elevators, like capsules through numerous tunnels. It’s not for nothing that all these tunnels have such precise dimensions.

How did aliens build the pyramids? It can be assumed that they moved the stone blocks not manually, but through the air using special rays that were generated by alien ships.

Why is information about aliens hidden?

There are two main reasons why information about an alien civilization is so carefully hidden.

The first reason is to prevent the population from panicking. It is known that the US government created a special project “Blue Book”. According to official information, he was supposed to study alien phenomena. In fact, he developed various ways to hide the fact of the existence of aliens from the inhabitants of the planet.

Another reason is that world powers are trying to outdo each other in the field of research into alien technology. By studying high-tech equipment, you can gain the opportunity to apply extraterrestrial knowledge to produce unsurpassed types of weapons.

Despite such secrecy, an increasing number of the planet's inhabitants believe that we are not alone in this Universe.

Version about the construction of pyramids by a highly developed civilization

This theory is also not officially recognized, but boils down to the fact that the pyramids were built by people.

Proponents of this theory believe that once upon a time there was already a civilization on Earth with a high level of consciousness and technology.

According to one theory, such a civilization were the Atlanteans (inhabitants of Atlantis), who built the pyramids or assisted the inhabitants of Egypt in this.

According to another version, the ancient inhabitants of Egypt were able to find and apply technologies from past civilizations to build pyramids. Again, historians know nothing about the existence of such civilizations.

Another theory is that the ancient Egyptians themselves stood at an extremely high level of development.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can come to the following conclusion: Whoever built the pyramids of Egypt clearly had a high level of development in the field of technology. Only an extraterrestrial civilization, or as we usually call them - Aliens, could have such a level of knowledge.