Greek colonies

on the northern coast of the Black Sea.

Based on the works of G.V. Vernadsky and other historians of the 19th-21st centuries.

As we have already noted, Greek cities on the northern Black Sea coast played an important role in the development

international commerce, serving as a link between the Mediterranean basin and Eurasia. In this sense, they were the predecessors of the Genoese and Venetian cities on the Black Sea, which played the same role in the Mongol period from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries AD. From a sociological point of view, however, there was

Perhaps this is what the ancient cities on the Black Sea coast looked like

big difference between ancient Greek And medieval Italian cities. The last ones were simple commercial trading posts, while the role of the former was not limited to commercial functions. Some of the Greek cities of the Scythian period were fully developed communities in which not only trade, but also arts and crafts flourished; Agriculture reached a high level in neighboring areas. So greek cities this period became important

cultural centers. In addition, they were closely connected with the cities of Greece proper, as well as with the little Asian ones, remaining part of the integrity of the Hellenic world. They, hence, served as a bridge between Greek world And Scythians. Greek artists and artisans fulfilled the orders of the Scythian kings and nobles, adapting to the Scythian artistic requirements. So, new art style, which can be called Greco-Scythian style, was created, influencing in turn for the development of Greek art in the later, so-called Hellenistic period. Most Greek cities on the northern coast of the Black Sea

This resulted in a fortunate situation for Greek cities in terms of international trade. The Persian kingdom was what can be called a "world empire", stretching from the Aegean Sea in the west to the Indus and Jazarta rivers in the east. It included such provinces as Asia Minor, Transcaucasus and Mesopotamia and continued the cultural traditions of the Hittites, Urartians and Assyro-Babylonians. The Greek cities of the coast of Asia Minor served as a link between Asia Minor, the Mediterranean basin and the Black Sea steppes, while the Greek cities on the northern part of the Black Sea were likened to many outposts of the old cities of Asia Minor.

Greek traders of Olbia,

Chersonese and

The Cimmerian Bosporus served as intermediaries in trade relations between the Persian kingdom and the Scythians. IN V century BC. majority Greek cities on Aegean coast emancipated from Persian rule.

AND actually Greece And

V features of Athens became the leading force. During the century from 477 to 377, commercial routes were under the economic and political control of Athens, despite the fact that at the end of the fifth century the power of Athens was

Map of Greece and Asia Minor to the beginning Peloponnesian War (431 BC).

significantly shaken Peloponnesian War. In general, the conditions for the development of settlements on the Black Sea coast were less favorable during the period of Athenian hegemony than during Persian rule. From a historical point of view

The Bosporan kingdom on the Kerch Strait, which existed from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD, was

Around 480 BC e. city-policies located on both banks of the Cimmerian Bosporus formed a single state. It went down in history under the name Bosporus Kingdom. Its capital was Panticapaeum (modern Kerch), the only large city on the western coast of the strait. The remaining more or less large settlements of Greek colonists were located on the eastern (“Asian”) coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus.
Initially, the Greek city-policies, which entered into an alliance with each other, retained independence in internal affairs. Then the Archeanactid dynasty became the head of the union. It is believed that these were representatives of a noble Greek family from Miletus. Over time, their power became hereditary.
From 438 BC e. power in the Bosporan kingdom passed to the Spartokid dynasty. Its ancestor, Spartok I, came from a “barbarian” tribal nobility associated with Greek merchants and slave owners.

Foreign policy of the Bosporan kingdom

The Spartokids pursued an active foreign policy. They sought to expand the territory of their state. One of the representatives of this dynasty, Leukon I (389-349 BC), led wars of conquest on the eastern coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He annexed Sindika, the area where Sindian tribes settled, to his state.

Z Then Levkon conquered the indigenous Meotian tribes of the Kuban and Eastern Azov regions. During his reign, the Bosporan Kingdom included territories located along the lower reaches of the Kuban and its lower tributaries, along the eastern shore of the Sea of ​​Azov up to the mouth of the Don and in the Eastern Crimea. In the east, the border of the Bosporan kingdom ran along the line of location of the modern settlements Staronizhesteblievskaya, Krymsk, Raevskaya.
Dedicatory inscriptions of the Bosporan rulers have been discovered. In one of them, Leucon I is called “archon of the Bosporus and Theodosius, king of the Sinds, Torets, Dandarii and Psessians.” His successor Perisad I (349-309 BC), already called the “king” of all Maeotians, included the Bosporus and the lands of the Fatei into the Bosporus.

However, the annexation of the Kuban and Azov tribes to the Bosporan kingdom was not durable. They had a certain independence and self-government, and from time to time they “fell away” from the central government. During the period of weakening of the Bosporan kingdom, these tribes even demanded that its rulers pay tribute.
A detailed description of the struggle for power between representatives of the Bosporan nobility was left by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus.

Weakening of the Bosporan Kingdom

The Spartokid dynasty ruled until 106 BC. e. Later, the Bosporus became part of the Pontic kingdom, created by Mithridates VI Eupator. After the death of Mithridates VI, the Bosporan state fell under the rule of Rome. In 14 AD e. Aspurgus became the king of Bosporus, founding a dynasty that ruled for about four hundred years.
At the beginning of the 3rd century. n. e. A strong alliance of tribes led by the Goths appeared in the Northern Black Sea region. He successfully fought with Rome on the banks of the Danube, and then rushed east. In the middle of the 3rd century. n. e. The Goths attacked the weakened Bosporan state, completely destroying the city of Tanais. The Bosporan rulers, lacking the strength and means to repel aggression from the warlike tribes, apparently entered into negotiations with them, allowing free passage through the strait. Moreover, they put their fleet at the disposal of the Goths, which they used for pirate purposes in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions.
The dominance of the Goths at sea interrupted trade ties between the Bosporan kingdom and the outside world. This worsened the already difficult economic situation. Under the attacks of the northern newcomers, many small Bosporan settlements perished, and large cities fell into decay.
The Huns dealt a powerful blow to the Bosporus. Their massive advance to the west (from the 70s of the 4th century) gave impetus to the Great Migration of Peoples.

In the last quarter of the 4th century. The Huns invaded the territory of the Bosporan kingdom and subjected it to devastation. A significant part of the population of the Bosporan cities and other settlements was driven into slavery, their homes were destroyed and burned.

For a long time it was believed that the Hun invasion put an end to the existence of the Bosporan state. However, new historical sources refute this opinion. The Bosporus continued to exist after the Hun invasion, from the 6th century. n. e. - under the influence of Byzantium, the heir of the Roman Empire. The Bosporan cities remained important political, economic and cultural centers in subsequent centuries, influencing the development of local tribes.

Greek colonists established trade with the surrounding Sindo-Maeotian tribes. Lively trade was also carried out with the cities of Greece. Especially a lot of grain was exported from the Bosporus, according to the testimony of the ancient Greek orator Demosthenes (about 384-322 BC) - about 16 thousand tons per year. This accounted for half of the grain imported by Greece.
The historian-geographer Strabo cited even more impressive figures: he noted that King Levkon I once sent a huge shipment of grain from Feodosia to the metropolis - about 84 thousand tons. This batch included grain grown by Greek colonists, taken as tribute from subject tribes, and received as a result of exchange.
In addition to bread, salted and dried fish, livestock, and furs were exported, and the slave trade flourished. In exchange, the settlers received precious metals, primarily silver, iron and iron products, marble for buildings, ceramics, art objects (statues, vases), weapons, wine, olive oil, and expensive fabrics.
The colonists maintained trade relations with the coastal cities of Asia Minor, Chios, Rhodes, Miletus, Samos, as well as with the Greek colony in Egypt Naucratis and the important trading center of mainland Greece Corinth.

From the end of the 6th century. BC e. leadership in trade with the Bosporan cities passed to Athens. The capital of Greece became the main consumer of products produced in the Northern and Eastern Black Sea region and a supplier of handicrafts to the Bosporus.

the predecessor of Russian rule in Tmutarakan from the 9th to the 11th centuries AD. There were several Greek cities in the kingdom on both banks of the Kerch Strait. They were founded in the seventh and sixth centuries BC. Most of them may have been built on the sites of older settlements of the local inhabitants of the Cimmerian period. First Greek cities to the east from the Kerch Strait were founded by colonists from Caria. Later new settlers arrived from Miletus. They settled on the Crimean side of the strait.

Mount Mithridates is the most remarkable place in the city; it is the ancient history of Kerch. Excavations have been ongoing on the mountain for many years. The remains of buildings of Panticapaeum, the capital of the Bosporus, were discovered here. Once upon a time, the six-columned temple of Apollo towered over the acropolis surrounded by a defensive wall. The white columns of the temple were visible far from the sea.
The Great Mithridates Staircase, numbering more than four hundred steps, leads to the top of the hill. It was built in 1833-1840. designed by Digby, an Italian architect who worked in Russia.
The mountain bears the name of the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (132-63 BC), who also ruled the Bosporus kingdom. A descendant of Alexander the Great and one of the main associates of the Persian king Darius, he was an outstanding personality, a versatile person who spoke several languages. Mithridates had enormous physical strength, indomitable energy and courage, a deep mind and a cruel disposition. The warlike king waged a stubborn long-term struggle with Rome, trying to crush the powerful empire, but in the end he himself was defeated.

The city of Panticapaeum, which became the capital of the Bosporan Kingdom, was initially Milesian colony. Economically, the Bosporan kingdom was based on trade between Asia Minor and the Trans-Caucasus, On the one side, and the Azov and Don regions - on the other.

Among the goods coming from the Trans-Caucasus region, metal and metal products played an important role. Fish and grain arrived in response from the Don and Azov regions. City Panticapaeum originally had an aristocratic constitution. IN fifth century BC He became the capital of the monarchy. Bosporan Kingdom was the result of a necessary compromise between the Greek newcomers and the local tribes, the Greeks were not numerous enough to colonize the entire country.

They remained mainly in cities. On the other side, local Japhetid and Iranian tribes, mostly known as Sinds and Maeots, were mostly outside cities and reluctantly submitted to the Greeks. There were some clashes and eventually local tycoon, who belonged to a local but completely Hellenized family, seized power and declared himself king Sinds and Maeots under the name of Spartok I (438/7 – 433/2 BC). While

He was recognized as king by the local tribes; the city of Panticapaeum recognized him only as archon ("head"). In fact, he had complete power over the Greeks and controlled the army administration through the chiliarchog (“commander of a thousand,” compare thousand in medieval Rus'). After establishing monarchical rule in Bosporus the country became strong enough to protect itself from the invasion of the Scythians and other steppe tribes. In some cases the Bosporan kings paid tribute to the Scythians, so as not to start a war. They could afford to pay off, since the kingdom was quite prosperous. Grain trade was the basis of economic stability. The Bosporan kings tried to monopolize this line of trade in the eastern regions of the Black Sea. According to the treaty of friendship with Athens (434/3 BC), the Bosporan king was supposed to supply Athens with grain.

After long struggle with the city of Heraclea, tsar Levkoi (389/8 – 349/8 BC) conquered an important port

Feodosia, thus securing a monopoly on the grain trade. As a result, the Bosporan kingdom was a major grain producer in the fifth and fourth centuries for Greece. IN Leucon's reign 670,000 medimni (about 22,000 tons) of grain were exported annually to Attica, which reached half of all grain imports into Attica. Following these cities Chersonesus was the most important Greek center in Crimea. It was one of the most viable early Greek colonies here, thriving as far back as the Byzantine period.

Accurate the date of foundation of Chersonesus is unknown; Herodotus does not mention her. Documentary evidence regarding Chersonesus originate in the fourth century BC. In this century the oldest city wall was erected. The geographical position of Chersonesos was less favorable than that of the Bosporan cities, since it was located far from the Azov and Don regions. On the other side, it was better protected from nomad raids and had excellent port facilities. It is also closer to the south coast

Black Sea than any other city on the northern coast. Chersonesos entered into close relations with Athens during the time of Athenian dominance.

Athenian influence was strong in the life and art of the city until the middle of the fourth century BC, after which Chersonesos vases, gold jewelry, terracotta, etc. approached the standards of Asia Minor. In terms of its political organization during the Scythian period, Chersonesos represented democracy. All power belonged to the people's assembly, and all public figures were elected. Actually the most significant issues were first discussed by the city council and then reported to the assembly.

An interesting inscription from the third century BC was discovered containing the text of the oath required of a Chersonesos official. She obliged him

not to violate the democratic order and

not to transmit information to the Greeks or “barbarians” that could harm the interests of the city.

Many citizens had fields and vineyards outside the city walls; sometimes they were rented, in other cases the owner himself cultivated the land. The city controlled the entire western coast of the Crimean Peninsula and part of the fertile steppe interior lands in its northern part. In the north-west of Crimea, the leading position belonged to Olbia, the “city of the Borysphenites”, which was located at the mouth of the Bug and ensured the integrity of the Bugodnestrovsky mouth. Thus, the city occupied a favorable position from the point of view of commercial routes running north into the interior of the territory. It would not be amiss to mention here that the wide mouth of the Dnieper also played an important role in the commercial exchange between Kievan Rus and Byzantium. Russian-Varangian princes tried to tightly control the mouth of the Dnieper, which offered a suitable point for Russian traders on their way to Constantinople.

Olbia had the closest ties with the Scythian world of all Greek colonies. She paid tribute to the Scythian kings and in return enjoyed their support. Its traders floated their goods deep into the territory up the Bug and Dnieper. In addition, Olbia was the starting point of the great overland caravan route to the Volga and Kama regions in the northeast. and the beginning of the fourth century BC. the city had friendly ties with Athens. During the period of Macedonian dominance, Olbia's relations with the Greek homeland were not so successful. Around 330 BC the city was besieged by Zopyrion, the governor of Tsar Alexander the Great in Thrace. To unite their entire population against the invaders, the Olivias took radical measures: the local population received citizenship and the slaves were freed. Many inscriptions dating from the early third century B.C. shed some light on economic conditions in Olbia. As can be seen from some of them, a wealthy citizen named Protogenes lent the city 1000 gold pieces, partly interest-free, to purchase grain. In addition, he provided himself with 2,500 medimnas of wheat at a reduced price. Like Chersonese, Olbia was a democracy. Before 330 BC only Greeks among the city's population had political rights, including voting in the council.

The first civilized people to settle in the Crimean lands were the ancient Greeks, or Hellenes. It was these people who made such a contribution to the development of all human civilization that cannot be overestimated. The influence of the ancient Greeks on the development of our peninsula is enormous.

The main reason for the resettlement of this people in the Northern Black Sea region was the search by low-income citizens for conditions for a normal life. The metropolis was overpopulated, there was no longer enough food and land for all free citizens, which gave rise to such a phenomenon as mass colonization. This movement dates back to the 7-6 centuries BC - the archaic era in the history of Ancient Greece. The first two waves of colonization affected lands close to Greece. The colonizers of the third wave crossed the Pont Euxine (the ancient Greek name of the Black Sea, translated as “Hospitable Sea”) and discovered fertile lands, an abundance of animals, birds, and fish. Being seafarers, the Greek settlers appreciated the local harbors and bays.

The first settlers who managed to create their own colonies on the territory of Crimea were the Ionian Greeks and the Dorian Greeks. It was they who, after some time, united other colonies around themselves and created two states - the Cimmerian Bosporus and the Tauride Chersonese.

The first city that the Hellenes founded in Crimea was Panticapaeum - present-day Kerch. The appearance of this city dates back to the turn of the 7th-6th centuries BC. A little later, in the 6th century BC, Feodosia was built, and the agricultural towns of Tiritaka, Parfeniy, Porfmiy, Myrmeky appeared on the Crimean coast of the Kerch Strait. The main inhabitants of these Hellenistic settlements were inhabitants of the western coast of Asia Minor (mainly from the Ionian city of Miletus) and the cities of the Aegean Sea.

Very quickly the colonists established their economic life: agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and hunting developed; various crafts are emerging - construction, jewelry, metalworking, weaving, ceramics; the emergence of surplus products and goods makes it possible to establish trade with the metropolis and natural exchange with neighboring tribes. Already in the middle of the 6th century BC, their own coins were minted in Panticapaeum, and a little later - in other cities.

Gradually, the colonies, increasing territorially and in number of inhabitants, became cities and turned into small state policies. Their centers in the east of Crimea were Panticapaeum, Feodosia and Nymphaeum.

The threat of attack from barbarian tribes and economic interests became the reason for the unification of most of the cities of the Kerch Strait. The new state that emerged as a result of this unification was called the Cimmerian Bosporus. The first mention of this state belongs to the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, who named the time of its birth - around 480 BC. This state is not only expanding, but also becoming ethnically diverse: in addition to the Greeks, it is inhabited by Scythians, Taurians, and on the other side of the Kerch Strait - Sindians and Maeotians.

Everything that the Greeks achieved in their historical homeland is widely used in Crimea. Urban planning, architecture, painting, philosophy, education, lawmaking, medicine, literature, theater, sports, a high level of development of agriculture and crafts - all this finds fertile soil on the Crimean soil for application and dissemination. Most likely, the Cimmerian Bosporus also included a settlement located on the site of the present Old Crimea. Numerous archaeological finds of Hellenistic origin and Panticapaean coins confirm this assumption.

At the end of the 4th century AD, after the invasion of the Huns, the Bosporus had to recognize their supremacy, and in the 6th century, the heiress of the fallen Roman Empire - Byzantium - subjugated these lands to itself.

In the southwestern part of Crimea there was another Hellenistic state - Tauride Chersonesos. Its center was Chersonesos (now Sevastopol), which was founded in the second half of the 5th century BC. colonists from Heraclea Pontica - a Dorian city on the southern coast of the Black Sea. The constant threat of attack from neighboring Tauri forced the settlers to quickly turn Chersonesos into a fortified city. The socio-economic development of the Chersonesos is taking place according to a scenario very similar to the development of their fellow countrymen, who mastered the Crimean lands a little earlier - the Bosporans. For a short time, Chersonesos was even under the Bosporan protectorate. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, Chersonesos became the center of Roman military occupation in Crimea. The city did not suffer from the Huns, since it was outside their routes of conquest. At the end of the 5th century, Chersonesos became part of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Panticalei Khankai (Greek: Παντικάπαιον) founded on the site of modern Kerch by immigrants from Miletus at the end of the 7th century BC. e., in its heyday it occupied about 100 hectares. The Acropolis was located on a mountain called today Mithridates. The main patron deity of Panticapaeum from the founding of the settlement was Apollo, and it was to him that the main temple of the acropolis was dedicated. The construction of the oldest and most grandiose building, by the standards of the Northern Black Sea region, of the Temple of Apollo Ietra was completed by the end of the 6th century. BC e. In addition, later, next to the palace of the Spartokids, there was a temple in honor of Aphrodite and Dionysus. Over time, the entire city was surrounded by a powerful system of stone fortifications, superior to that of Athens. In the vicinity of the city there was a necropolis, which differed from the necropolises of other Hellenic cities. In addition to the usual ground burials for Hellenes at that time, the necropolis of Panticapaeum consisted of long chains of mounds stretching along the roads from the city to the steppe. On the southern side, the city is bordered by the most significant ridge of mounds, today called Yuz-Oba - a hundred hills. Buried under their mounds were representatives of the barbarian nobility - the Scythian leaders who exercised military-political protectorate over the city. The mounds still constitute one of the most striking attractions in the vicinity of Kerch. The most popular of them are Kul-Oba, Melek-Chesmensky, Zolotoy and especially the famous Tsarsky.
The history of Panticapaeum as a city began at the end of the 7th century BC. e., when on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait) ancient Greek colonists founded a number of independent city-states (polises) that formed in the 40s. VI century BC e. military confederation. The goal of the intercity union was to confront the indigenous population - the Scythians. Panticapaeum was the largest, most powerful and probably the first. This is indicated by the fact that already from the late 40s. VI century BC e. Panticapaeum minted its own silver coin, and from the last third of the 70s. IV century BC e. - and gold.
The city of Feodosia was founded by Greek colonists from Miletus in the 6th century BC. e. The ancient name of the city was Kaffa, mentioned during the time of Emperor Diocletian (284-305).
From 355 BC. e. Kaffa was supposedly part of the Bosporan kingdom. According to some estimates, ancient Kaffa was the second most important city in the European part of the Bosporan kingdom with a population of 6-8 thousand people. Economic prosperity was the reason for the outbreak of war between Feodosia and Bosporus. In 380 BC. e. The troops of King Leukon I annexed Feodosia to the Bosporan kingdom. As part of the ancient Bosporus, Feodosia was the largest trading port in the Northern Black Sea region. Trade ships with grain departed from here. The fortified center of Feodosia - the acropolis - was located on Quarantine Hill.
The city was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD. e.
Tauric Chersonesos, or simply Chersonesos (ancient Greek Χερσόνησος - ἡ χερσόνησος) is a polis founded by the ancient Greeks on the Heracles Peninsula on the southwestern coast of Crimea. Nowadays the Khersones settlement is located on the territory of the Gagarinsky district of Sevastopol. For two thousand years, Chersonesus was a major political, economic and cultural center of the Northern Black Sea region, where it was the only Dorian colony. Chersonesos was a Greek colony founded in 529/528. BC e. came from Heraclea Pontus, located on the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea. It is located in the southwestern part of Crimea, near the bay, which is currently called Karantinnaya. In the earliest layers of Chersonesus, archaeologists found a significant number of shards (fragments) of archaic black-figure ceramics, which date back no later than the 6th century BC. e.
A little over a hundred years after the founding of Chersonese, its territory already occupied the entire space of the peninsula lying between the Karantinnaya and Pesochnaya bays (translated from Greek “Chersonese” means peninsula, and the Hellenes called the southern coast of Crimea Tavrika (the country of the Taurians).

10. Socio-political life and government structure of Chersonesus.
State authority
The bulk of the free population of Chersonesos were Greeks, and the Greeks were Dorians. This is indicated by epigraphic monuments, which, until the first centuries of our era, were written in the Doric dialect. The characteristic features of the latter is the use of: α instead of y, for example in the words δάμος-δ-^ιος, βουλά, -βοολή, Χερσόνασος instead of Χερσόνησος, etc.
But, along with the Greeks, Tauris and Scythians lived in Chersonesus. Scythian names are found on amphora handles and in epigraphic monuments (ΙΡΕ I 2, 343). One of the Chersonese ambassadors in Delphi, who received proxy there, has the patronymic Σκοθα;. The same person is apparently named in the act of sale of land (ΙΡΕ I 2, 403). Thus, some persons from the native population not only lived in Chersonesos, but also enjoyed civil rights there. It is difficult to say whether this was an exception or, on the contrary, a mass phenomenon. In any case, there is no doubt that Chersonesus was closely connected with the local population, and did not stand isolated from it.
The ruling class in Chersonesos were slave owners: landowners, workshop owners, traders, as well as small peasants and artisans. The oppressed and exploited class were the slaves who came from the native population; “Slave owners and slaves are the first major division into classes.” 1 In addition, the Scythian population, who lived on the territory belonging to Chersonesus, was dependent on Chersonese. The revolt of the Scythians under the leadership Savmaka is convincing evidence that the Scythians were exploited by the Greeks.
During the period under review, there was a democratic republic in Chersonesos. The forms of government bodies and the general nature of the state structure of Chersonesos have much in common with the state structure of Heraclea and its metropolis - Megara. 1 The main source for studying the state structure of Chersonesos are epigraphic monuments - inscriptions on marble slabs. Valuable documents are inscriptions issued on behalf of the state: honorary decrees, proxies, treaties, acts, etc. One of the most important monuments of Chersonesus is the oath dating back to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. (IPE I 2, 401). Until now, it was generally accepted that the oath represented an oath that was taken by young men who had reached the age of majority - ephebes, who then received the rights of citizenship, that the oath listed all the duties that every citizen had to observe. 2 Academician S. A. Zhebelev 3 believes that all citizens of the state had to take the oath after the attempt to overthrow democracy was eliminated. This new understanding of the text of the oath gives us the opportunity to learn about the class struggle that took place in Hersemes at a fairly early period, which makes the oath an even more valuable monument.
Political life
Despite the fact that the political system of Chersonesus was called “democracy”, the leading role in the political life of the city is gradually passing into the hands of representatives of the most prosperous part of the population. Participation in public administration was not paid and therefore was practically inaccessible to those who lived only from the results of their labor. As follows from the honorary decrees and dedicatory inscriptions of Chersonese, actual power in the state gradually passes to several families, and the Chersonese democracy, as in Olbia, becomes a democracy only for a small circle of wealthy citizens.
Political life in the ancient city was always closely connected with religious life. Temples stood out in the architectural decoration of the city. Unfortunately, as a result of subsequent reconstructions and redevelopment of the city area, all the ancient temples were destroyed and were not preserved. However, we know from honorary inscriptions that there were several temples in the city. The main shrine of Chersonesos from the 4th century BC. e. became a sanctuary of the Virgin with a temple and a statue of this deity. In general, the religious life of the city at that time was rich and varied. At the head of the official pantheon, judging by the oath of citizens, were Zeus, Gaia, Helios and Virgo. In addition to the temple in the city near Chersonesus, on Cape Feolent or on the Mayachny Peninsula, there was another temple of the Virgin. In this temple, according to ancient Greek legends, the priestess was Iphigenia, the daughter of the leader of the Trojan campaign of the Greeks, Agamemnon, who was sacrificed by him. There was a temple to the Virgin in Chersonesus itself.

11.Bosporan kingdom. Government structure and socio-economic life. Uprising of Savmak
The Bosporan Kingdom (or Bosporus, the Vosporan Kingdom (N.M. Karamzin), the Vosporan tyranny) is an ancient state in the Northern Black Sea region on the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait). The capital is Panticapaeum. Formed around 480 BC. e. as a result of the unification of Greek cities on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, as well as the entry of Sindiki. Later it was expanded along the eastern shore of Meotida (Sea of ​​Azov) to the mouth of the Tanais (Don). From the end of the 2nd century BC. e. as part of the Pontic kingdom. From the end of the 1st century. BC e. post-Hellenistic state dependent on Rome. Became part of Byzantium in the 1st half. VI century Known from Greco-Roman historians. After the middle of the 7th century BC, Greek settlers appeared on the northern shore of the Black Sea, and by the beginning of the second quarter of the 6th century BC. e. develop a significant part of the coast, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea. The first colony in this area was the Taganrog settlement, founded in the second half of the 7th century BC, located in the area of ​​​​modern Taganrog. Most likely, the colonies were founded as apoikia - independent policies (free civil groups ). Greek colonies were founded in the area of ​​the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait), where there was no permanent local population. There was a permanent population in the Crimean Mountains, where the Taurian tribes lived, Scythians periodically roamed the steppes, and semi-nomadic Meotians and Sindian farmers lived around the Kuban River. At first, the colonies did not experience pressure from the barbarians, their population was very small, and the settlements had no defensive walls. Around the middle of the 6th century. BC e. Fires were recorded at some small monuments, including Myrmekia, Porthmia and Thorik, after which small fortified acropolises appeared on the first two of them. Conveniently located, possessing a good trading harbor and therefore having reached a significant level of development, Panticapaeum, presumably, became the center around which the Greek cities of both banks of the Kerch Strait united into an intercity union. Currently, an opinion has emerged that initially he managed to unite only nearby small towns around himself, and on the other side of the strait, the center founded in the 3rd quarter became the center. VI century BC e. Phanagoria. Around 510 BC e. The temple of Apollo of the Ionic order was built in Panticapaeum. Apparently, on behalf of the sacred union of cities that arose around the temple, a coin with the legend “ΑΠΟΛ” was issued. Whether this union was equal to a political one, how it was organized, who was part of it is unknown. There is a hypothesis linking the issue of these coins with Phanagoria.

Socio-economic life
The population of large territories of the Bosporan kingdom was at different stages of socio-economic development and social relations. The slave-owning mode of production reigned here, and therefore society was divided into free and bonded people. The ruling elite included the royal family and its entourage, officials of the central and local government apparatus, shipowners, slave traders, owners of land plots, craft workshops, wealthy merchants, representatives of the tribal and military nobility, and priests. The owners and managers of the land were Bosporan rulers and large landowners. There was state and private ownership of land. The Bosporan state was inhabited by free citizens of average income who did not have slaves, foreigners, as well as free communal peasants (Pelata). The latter were the main payers of taxes in kind for the right to use land and primarily bore the burden of duties in favor of the state and the local aristocracy. In addition, peasants were obliged to participate in the militia during the attack of nomadic tribes on the Bosporan kingdom. The low level of the social ladder was traditionally occupied by slaves, divided into private and state. The work of state slaves was mainly used in the construction of public buildings and defensive structures. In tribal organizations, slavery was domestic, patriarchal. Local aristocrats widely used slave labor on agricultural farms, where they mainly grew bread for sale.

State structure
According to the historical type, the Bosporan kingdom was a slave state, like the city-states that were part of it. In terms of the form of government, it was one of the varieties of despotic monarchy. From the beginning of its formation, the Bosporan kingdom was an aristocratic republic, headed from 483 BC. stood the clan of Archenaktidiv. From the middle of the 5th century. (438 BC) power passed to the Spartokid dynasty, which ruled here for three centuries. The Spartokids for a long time styled themselves archons of the Bosporus and Feodosia, and called themselves kings after the vassal barbarian peoples. Already from the III Art. BC. The double title disappears, the rulers call themselves kings (the Bosporan kings retained the title of archons in the 1st century BC only in relation to Panticapaeum).

The city-states that became part of the Bosporan kingdom had a certain autonomy and their own bodies of self-government (people's assemblies, city councils, elected positions). But already on the verge of a new era, the Bosporan kings became sole rulers, owners who called themselves “kings of kings” (with the accession of new tribes to the state, the title of head of state - king - was added to their ethnic name). In the 1st-3rd centuries AD. In the Bosporus, the tendency towards centralization of power intensified, accompanied by the formation of a complex state-bureaucratic structure with the tsarist administration at its head.

Savmak uprising
Scythian uprising in the Bosporus state in 107 BC. e. It flared up in Panticapaeum during negotiations with Diophantus on the transfer of power from the Bosporan king Perisad V to the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (See Mithridates VI Eupator). Perisad was killed by Savmak, and Diophantus fled to Chersonesos. The rebels took possession of the entire European part of the Bosporus. In the N. century. The Scythian population, consisting of dependent peasants, artisans, and slaves, participated. S.v. prevented the implementation of a political deal, with the help of which the slave-owning elite of the Bosporus, trying to find a way out of the acute crisis and maintain their class dominance, tried to establish a regime of firm power, transferring it into the hands of Mithridates VI. The rebel leader Savmak became the ruler of Bosporus. The system established during the reign of Savmak, which lasted about a year, is unknown. After lengthy preparation, Mithridates VI sent a large punitive expedition of Diophantus to Sinope. In Crimea, Chersonesus detachments were included in it. Diophantus' troops took Feodosia, crossed the Kerch Peninsula and captured Panticapaeum. S.v. was suppressed, Savmak was captured, and the Bosporan state came under the rule of Mithridates VI.

Under no circumstances should you order a diploma through friends, or buy ready-made “papers” in underground passages or from unverified organizations - only by purchasing a diploma, officially issued according to all modern standards, can you count on its repayment.
Buying a diploma in Kyiv is not difficult, this business is well established in our country, but not every offer is worth believing. Only companies with extensive experience can provide truly high-quality documents that will even be included in the register!

Our website presents samples that meet all modern standards: diplomas are printed on official forms, with all the necessary watermarks and holographic images applied. To order a diploma in Kyiv or any other city in Ukraine, you just need to leave a request - specialists will contact you to clarify all the details.

Thus, anyone can now buy a real diploma of higher education, regardless of the desired educational institution and the purpose of obtaining the document. We understand that situations are different, sometimes you just need a diploma to “show your parents” or to get a job in a small company where serious checks will definitely not be carried out - in this case, a document printed on a printed copy will suit you, which will cost less and at the same time outwardly no different from the original.

How much does it cost to buy a diploma in Ukraine

Every day our clients order absolutely any educational documents - from a school certificate to a USSR-style diploma and a scientific degree. You just need to choose an educational institution, specialty and year of graduation, and we take care of the rest!
The cost of ordering an institute diploma depends on whether you want it printed on government letterhead, or whether a printed copy is enough for you. You must also decide whether your diploma needs to be included in the database (in this case, it will pass checks even by government agencies). In any case, our prices will pleasantly surprise you - a bachelor's degree from even one of the most prestigious universities costs from 10,000 UAH!

If you need a candidate or doctorate degree and want to buy a diploma in Kyiv, the cost of such a document is 12-27 thousand UAH. This is quite inexpensive when compared to traditionally obtaining a scientific degree: just to be allowed to defend your dissertation (which still needs to be written), you will have to pass special exams and publish a huge number of scientific articles, including in international collections (the cost of each reaches 20,000 UAH).

There are situations when you need to buy a legal USSR-style diploma - our team easily copes with this task, and for you such a purchase will cost only 6,000 UAH!

We sell diplomas for foreigners, documents from Russian educational institutions, we produce high-quality documents for graduates of any technical schools and colleges - just look at our prices and make sure that this is a truly advantageous offer!

Our guarantees

We can offer diplomas entered in the state register - this is the main guarantee of document quality. Posting to a common database means that you are buying an original diploma, which is not afraid of any authenticity checks. Even if you want to join government agencies, where the documents of each candidate are subject to serious checks, no one will doubt the authenticity of your diploma.

Do you want to receive a high-quality document without overpaying for inclusion in the database? Don't worry! A team of professional calligraphers works on each diploma, creating documents that are no different from those received by university graduates, right down to signatures and authentic seals. We advise you to buy a Ukrainian diploma, printed on state letterhead, with all the necessary holographic symbols and watermarks, and you can learn more about our guarantees here.

Terms of production and delivery of diplomas

We know how sometimes a document is needed right now, so we are ready to complete the work as soon as possible. Even if the interview date has already been set, you can buy a diploma in Kyiv cheaply and receive the finished document within a couple of days - we approach each client and his situation individually.
You can also choose any payment method - from a bank card to cash with a courier. By cooperating with us, each client has the opportunity to buy a diploma without prepayment and be sure that the document will be delivered to you on time and meet all requirements.

It doesn’t matter what city or even country you live in - just contact us and we will choose the most convenient delivery and payment method for you.
Is it possible to buy a higher education diploma? Need to! With such a document you can change your life, get a prestigious position and even work in different countries! Everything is in your hands on the site