What is the Parthenon? Parthenon in Greece. Temples of Athens In what century was the Parthenon temple built?
Published: June 8, 2015The Parthenon (ancient Greek: Παρθενών; modern Greek: Παρθενώνας) is an ancient temple in , dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the Athenians considered their patroness. Construction began in 447 BC. BC, when the Athenian Empire was at the peak of its power. It ended in 438 BC. e., although the decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. e. It is the most important surviving building of classical Greece, the zenith of which is generally considered to be the Doric order. The decorative sculptures of the Parthenon are considered among the most successful in Greek art. And the Parthenon itself is a symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and Western civilization, and one of the greatest cultural monuments in the world. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently implementing a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially destroyed structure.
The Parthenon, replaced by what historians call the Pre-Parthenon, was destroyed during the Persian invasion of 480 BC. e. The temple was built archaeoastronomically, according to the Hyades star cluster. Despite the fact that the sacred building was dedicated to the patron goddess of the city, it was actually used as a treasury. At one time, it served as a treasury for the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the last decades of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon, which was converted into a Christian church, was dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
After the Ottoman conquest in the early 60s of the 15th century, it was turned into a mosque. On September 26, 1687, due to the Venetian bombardment, Ottoman ammunition stored in the building caught fire. The explosion seriously damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, removed some of the surviving sculptures, ostensibly with Ottoman permission. They are now known as the Elgin or Parthenon Marbles. In 1816 they were sold to the British Museum in London, where they are exhibited today. Since 1983 (on the initiative of the Minister of Culture Melina Mercouri), the Greek government decided to return the sculptures to Greece.
Etymology
Originally, the name "Parthenon" came from the Greek word παρθενών (parthenon), and was referred to in the sense of "unmarried women's rooms" in a house, and in the case of the Parthenon, perhaps only a separate room of the temple was used at first. There is debate as to what room this was and how it got its name. According to the work of Lidle, Scott, Jones "Greek-English Lexicon" it was the western cella of the Parthenon. Jamari Greene believes that the Parthenon was the room in which peplum was presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Games. It was woven by the Arrephoros, four girls who were chosen every year to serve Athena. Christopher Pelling argues that the Athena Parthenos may represent a separate cult of Athena, closely related, but not identical, to the cult of Athena Polias. According to this theory, the name Parthenon means "temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos, which was associated with this temple. The epithet "parthenos" (παρθένος), whose origin is unknown, means "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman", and was mainly used in relation to Artemis, goddess of wild animals, hunting and vegetation, and Athena, goddess of strategy and tactics, craft and practical reason. There is also speculation that the name of the temple refers to the maidens (parthenos), whose supreme sacrifice guarantees the safety of the city.
© website, in the photo: The Parthenon today, July 2014
The first instance in which the name Parthenon clearly refers to the entire building was found in the writings of the orator Demosthenes, dating from the 4th century BC. In the 5th century the building was seen as a structure that was simply called ho naos ("temple"). It is believed that the architects Mnesicles and Kallicrates called it Hekatompodos ("one hundred feet") in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture, and in the 4th century and later, it was known as Hekatompedos or Hekatompedon, like the Parthenon; in the 1st century AD e. the writer Plutarch called the building Hekatompedon Parthenon.
Because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it was sometimes called the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, especially in the 19th century.
Purpose
Although architecturally the Parthenon is a temple and is usually called that, in the generally accepted sense of the word this is not entirely true. A small temple was found inside the building, on the site of an old one, probably dedicated to Athena as a way to get closer to the goddess, but the Parthenon itself never accepted the cult of Athena Polis, the patroness of Athens; The cult image, which was washed in the sea and presented with peplos, was the olive xoan, located on the old altar in the northern part of the Acropolis.
The magnificent statue of Athena, by Phidias, was not associated with any cult and it is not known whether it kindled any religious fervor. She probably did not have a priestess, altar or cult name. According to Thucydides, Pericles once called the statue a gold reserve, emphasizing that it "consisted of forty talents of pure gold, and they could be taken out." The Athenian statesman thus assumed that the metal obtained from modern coinage could be used again without any disrespect. The Parthenon was then seen more as a large setting for a votive statue of Phidias, rather than a place of worship. It is said that many Greek authors in their works described the countless treasures stored inside the temple, such as Persian swords and small statues made of precious metals.
Archaeologist Joan Breton Connelly has recently championed the connection of the Parthenon's sculptural plan in presenting a series of genealogical accounts that trace Athenian features back through the centuries: from the birth of Athena, through cosmic and epic battles, to the great final event of the Athenian Bronze Age, the War of Erechtheus and Eumolpus. She argues that the pedagogical function of the Parthenon's sculptural decoration establishes and reinforces the Athenian foundations of myth, memory, values and identity. Connelly's thesis is controversial and some well-known classicists such as Mary Beard, Peter Green and Garry Wheels have either questioned it or simply rejected it.
Early history
Old Parthenon
The initial desire to build a sanctuary of Athena Parthenos on the site of the current Parthenon was realized soon after the Battle of Marathon (ca. 490-488 BC) on a foundation of solid limestone, which was located at the southern part of the top of the Acropolis. This building replaced the Hekatompedon (i.e. "one hundred feet") and stood next to the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias. The Old Parthenon, or Pre-Parthenon as it is often called, was still under construction when it was built in 480 BC. e. the Persians sacked the city and destroyed the Acropolis.
The existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction is known from Herodotus. The drums of its columns were clearly visible and were built after the load-bearing wall north of the Erechtheion. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed during the excavations of Panagis Kavadias in 1885-1890. Their results allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to argue that there was an underground structure in the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I, which was not located exactly below the current building, as previously thought. Dörpfeld's observation was that three of the steps of the first Parthenon were made of limestone, two of which were porous, like the base, and the top step of Carkha limestone, which was covered by the lowest step of Pericles' Parthenon. This platform was smaller and located just north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for an entirely different building, now completely covered. The picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report of the excavations in 1885-1890, which indicated that this underground structure was of the same age as the walls built by Cimon, and implied a later date for the first temple.
Plan of the Parthenon, photo: public domain
If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, this raises the question of why the site remained in ruins for thirty-three years. One argument suggests an oath taken by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. e., according to which the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians will not be restored. Only in 450, with the conclusion of the Peace of Callias, did the Athenians free themselves from this oath. The mundane fact about the cost of rebuilding Athens after the Persian sack is not as plausible as its reason. However, Bert Hodge Hill's excavations led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, created during the reign of Cimon after 468 BC. e. Hill argued that the Carja limestone step, which Dörpfeld thought was the tallest in Parthenon I, was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate, according to Hill, measured 23.51 by 66.888 meters (77.13 × 219.45 feet).
One of the difficulties in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the excavations in 1885, the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; careless digging and backfilling of the site resulted in the loss of a lot of valuable information. Attempts to discuss and comprehend the clay shards found in the Acropolis were realized in a two-volume work by Graf and Langlotz, published in 1925-1933. This inspired the American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to try to establish extreme dates for the temple platform and its five walls, hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the last possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495 BC. e., which contradicts the earlier date established by Dörpfield. Moreover, Dinsmoor denied the existence of two proto-Parthenons and established that the only temple before the Temple of Pericles was the one Dörpfeld called Parthenon II. In 1935, Dinsmoor and Dorpfield exchanged opinions in the American Journal of Archaeology.
Modern construction
In the middle of the 5th century BC. BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the Delian League, and Athens was the greatest cultural center of its time, Pericles initiated an ambitious building project that lasted throughout the second half of the century. During this period, the most important buildings that can be seen on the Acropolis today were built: the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike. The Parthenon was built under the general direction of Phidias, who was also responsible for the sculptural decoration. The architects Ictinus and Callicrates began their work in 447 BC. BC, and by 432 the building was completed, but decoration work continued until at least 431. Some financial records survive for the Parthenon, which show that the largest expense was transporting the stones from Mount Pentelikon, about 16 km (9.9 mi) from Athens, to the Acropolis. These funds were partly taken from the treasury of the Delian League, transferred from the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in 454 BC. e.
Architecture
The Parthenon is an octastyle Doric temple surrounded by columns with Ionic architectural features. It stands on a platform or stylobate of three steps. Like other Greek temples, it has a lintel and is surrounded by columns carrying an entablature. At each end there are eight columns ("octastyle"), and on the sides there are seventeen. Also, at each end of the column, there are two rows of columns. The colonnade surrounds an internal stone structure - a cella, divided into two rooms. At both ends of the building, the roof ends in a triangular pediment, originally filled with sculptures. The columns are of the Doric order with a simple capital, fluted shaft and no base. Above the architrave is a frieze of illustrated carved panels (metopes) separated by a triglyph, typical of the Doric order. Around the cella and along the lintels of the internal columns there is a continuous sculptural frieze in the form of bas-relief. This element of architecture is more Ionic than Doric.
Measured on the stylobate, the dimensions of the Parthenon's base are 69.5 by 30.9 meters (228 by 101 ft). The cella was 29.8 meters long and 19.2 meters wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft) with an internal colonnade in two rows, structurally necessary to support the roof. Externally, the Doric columns measured 1.9 meters (6.2 ft) in diameter and 10.4 meters (34 ft) in height. The diameter of the corner columns was slightly larger. In total, the Parthenon had 23 internal and 46 external columns, each containing 20 flutes. (A flute is a concave groove carved in the shape of a column). The stylobate had a curvature that increased towards the center by 60 mm (2.4 in) at the east and west ends and 110 mm (4.3 in) at the sides. The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as tegula and tegula tiles.
© website, in the photo: The Parthenon today, July 2014
The Parthenon is considered the best example of Greek architecture. John Julius Cooper wrote that the temple “enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even in antiquity, his architectural improvements were legendary, especially the subtle relationship between the curvature of the stylobates, the inclination of the cella walls and the entasis of the columns." Entasis refers to the slight decrease in the diameter of columns as they rise, although the observed effect in the Parthenon is much more subtle than in earlier temples. Stylobate is a platform on which columns stand. Like many other classical Greek temples, it has a slight parabolic increase in curvature to drain rainwater and strengthen the building against earthquakes. Perhaps this is why the columns were supposed to lean outward, but in fact they leaned slightly inward so that if they continued they would meet almost exactly a mile above the center of the Parthenon; since they are all of the same height, the curvature of the outer edge of the stylobate is transferred to the architrave and the roof: “The whole subsequent principle of construction is based on a slight curvature,” Gorham Stevens noted this when he pointed out that the western façade was built slightly higher than the southern one. It is not universally established what the intended effect of entasis is; it is possible that it served as a kind of “reverse optical illusion.” Because the Greeks may have known that two parallel lines slope, or bend outward, when crossing converging lines. In this case, it seems that the ceiling and floor of the temple are leaning towards the corners of the building. In their quest for perfection, the designers may have added these curves, fulfilling the illusion by creating their own curves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be as it was intended. It has also been suggested that it was used to “revitalize” a building without curves that would perhaps have the appearance of an inert mass, but the comparison should be with the more obvious curved predecessors of the Parthenon, and not with a conventionally rectilinear temple.
Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, have concluded that many of its proportions are close to the golden ratio. The Parthenon's façade, as well as its elements, can be described by a golden rectangle. This view was refuted in later studies.
Sculpture
The cella of the Parthenon housed the chrysoelephantine statue of Athena Parthenos by Phidias, created in 439 or 438 BC. e.
Initially, decorative stonework was very colorful. At that time, the temple was dedicated to Athena, although construction continued almost until the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By 438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the outer colonnade and the decoration of the Ionic frieze around the top of the cella wall were completed.
The richness of the frieze and metopes is consistent with the temple's purpose as a treasury. The opisthodome (back room of the cella) housed the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was a leading member. Today, the surviving sculptures are kept in the Acropolis Museum in Athens and the British Museum in London, and several items are in Paris, Rome, Vienna and Palermo.
Metopes
Western metopes - illustrate the current situation of the temple after 2,500 years of war, pollution, destruction, looting and vandalism, photo: Thermos,The frieze of the entablature contains ninety-two metopes, fourteen each on the east and west sides, and thirty-two each on the north and south. They are carved in bas-relief, a practice used only for treasuries (the building was used to store votive gifts to the gods). According to construction documentation, the metope sculptures date back to 446-440 BC. e. The metopes of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, on the eastern side, depict the Gigantomachy (mythical battle between the Olympian gods and the giants). The metopes on the western side show the Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons), and on the south the Thessalian centauromachy (battle of the Lapiths, aided by Theseus, against the half-human, half-horse centaurs). Metopes 13 to 21 are missing, but drawings attributed to Jacques Curry indicate groups of people; they have been variously interpreted as scenes from the wedding of Lapith, scenes from the early history of Athens and various myths. On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the plot resembles the destruction of Troy.
The metopes are exemplified by the strict style in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of physical movements to contours but not to the muscles, and in the pronounced veins in the centauromachy figures. Some of them still remain on the building, with the exception of those on the north side, as they are badly damaged. Several metopes are in the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum, and one in the Louvre.
In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five Parthenon metopes on the south wall of the Acropolis, which was extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to the daily newspaper Eleftherotype, archaeologists claimed that the metopes were placed there in the 18th century, when the wall was being restored. Experts discovered the metopes when processing 2,250 photographs using modern photographic methods. They were made from white Pentelic marble, which is different from the other stone on the wall. It was previously assumed that the missing metopes were destroyed during the explosion of the Parthenon in 1687.
© website, in the photo: The Parthenon today, July 2014
Frieze
The most distinctive feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze around the outer walls of the cella (the interior of the Parthenon). The bas-relief frieze was carved at the construction site; it dates back to 442-438 BC. e. One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the procession of the Panathenaic Games from the Dipylon gate at Kerameikos to the Acropolis. This procession, which took place every year, was attended by Athenians and foreigners to honor the goddess Athena by offering sacrifices and new peplos (cloth woven by specially selected noble Athenian maidens).
Joan Breton Connelly offers a mythological interpretation of the frieze, which is in harmony with the rest of the temple's sculptural plan, and shows Athenian genealogy through a series of myths from the distant past. She identifies the central panel above the Parthenon door as the sacrifice made before the battle by the daughter of King Erechtheus, which secured victory over Eumolplus and his Thracian army. A large procession moved towards the eastern part of the Parthenon, displaying a post-battle thanksgiving offering of cattle and sheep, honey and water, following the triumphant army of Erechtheus as it returned victorious. In mythical times, these were the very first Panathenaea, the model on which the historical processions of the Panathenaic Games were based.
Pediments
When the traveler Pausanias visited the Acropolis at the end of the 2nd century AD, he only briefly mentioned the sculptures of the temple pediments (gabel ends), leaving the main place to describe the gold and ivory statue of the goddess that was located inside the temple.
East gable
The east pediment tells the story of the birth of Athena from the head of her father Zeus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus gave life to Athena after a terrible headache prompted him to call Hephaestus (god of fire and blacksmithing) to provide assistance. To relieve the pain, he ordered Hephaestus to hit him with a hammer, and when he did this, Zeus's head split open and the goddess Athena came out of it, all dressed in armor. The sculptural composition depicts the moment of the birth of Athena.
Unfortunately, the central part of the pediment was destroyed even before Jacques Curry, who in 1674 created useful documentary drawings, therefore, all restoration work is the subject of assumptions and hypotheses. The main Olympian gods would be standing around Zeus and Athena, watching the miraculous event, probably with Hephaestus and Hera at their side. Kerry's drawings played an important role in restoring the sculptural composition on the north and south sides.
West gable
The western pediment overlooked the Propylaea and depicted the struggle between Athena and Poseidon during their competition for the honor of becoming the patron of the city. They appear in the center of the composition, and diverge from each other in strict diagonal shapes, the goddess holds an olive tree, and the sea god raises his trident to strike the ground. On the sides, they are flanked by two groups of horses pulling chariots, while the space in the sharp corners of the pediment is filled with legendary characters from Athenian mythology.
Work on the pediments continued from 438 to 432 BC. e., and the sculptures on them are considered one of the best examples of classical Greek art. The figures are created in natural movements, and the bodies are full of vital energy that breaks through their flesh, which in turn breaks through their thin clothing. Thin chitons show the lower part of the body as the center of the composition. By placing the sculptures in stone, the sculptors erased the differences between gods and men, and the conceptual relationship between idealism and naturalism. The gables no longer exist.
Drawing of the statue “Athena Parthenos” installed inside the Parthenon
Athena Parthenos
Only one sculpture from the Parthenon is known to belong to the hand of Phidias, a statue of Athena, which was located in the naos. This massive gold and ivory sculpture is now lost. It is known only from copies, vase paintings, jewelry, literary descriptions and coins.
Late period of history
Late Antiquity
In the mid-third century AD, a major fire broke out at the Parthenon, destroying the roof and much of the temple's interior. In the fourth century AD, restoration work was carried out, probably during the reign of Flavius Claudius Julian. To cover the sanctuary, a new wooden roof was laid, covered with clay tiles. It had a greater slope than the original roof, and the wings of the building were left open.
For almost a thousand years, the Parthenon continued to exist as a temple dedicated to Athena, until in 435 AD. e. Theodosius II did not decide to close all pagan temples in Byzantium. In the fifth century, one of the emperors stole the great cult image of Athena and took it to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege of Constantinople in 1204 AD. e.
Christian church
In the last decades of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church, called the Church of Maria Parthenos (Virgin Mary), or the Church of Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed, turning the facade to the east; The main entrance was moved to the western end of the building, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were located on the eastern side of the building next to the apse, built on the site where the temple's pronaos had previously been located.
A large central entrance with adjacent side doors was made in the wall dividing the cella, which became the church nave, from the back room, the narthex of the church. The gaps between the columns of the opisthodome and peristyle were walled up, however, the number of entrances to the room was sufficient. Icons were painted on the walls, and Christian inscriptions were carved into the columns. These renovations inevitably led to the removal of some sculptures. The images of the gods were either interpreted in accordance with Christian themes, or were confiscated and destroyed.
The Parthenon became the fourth most important site of Christian pilgrimage in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, after Constantinople, Ephesus and Thessalonica. In 1018, Emperor Basil II made a pilgrimage to Athens, immediately after his final victory over the Bulgarians, for the sole purpose of visiting the church at the Parthenon. In medieval Greek records it was called the Temple of the Virgin of Athens (Theotokos Atheniotissa) and was often referred to indirectly as famous, without precisely explaining which temple was meant, thus confirming that it was indeed famous.
During the Latin occupation, for approximately 250 years, it became the Roman Catholic Church of the Virgin Mary. During this period, a tower was built on the southwest corner of the cella, which was used as a watchtower or as a bell tower with a spiral staircase, and also as vaulted tombs under the floor of the Parthenon.
Islamic mosque
In 1456, Ottoman forces invaded Athens and besieged the Florentine army, which defended the Acropolis until June 1458, when the city fell to the Turkish. The Turks quickly restored the Parthenon for continued use as a church by Greek Christians. For some time, before its closure in the fifteenth century, the Parthenon became a mosque.
The exact circumstances under which the Turks took possession of it for use as a mosque are unclear; one source states that Mehmed II ordered its reconstruction as punishment for the Athenian plot against the Ottoman Empire.
The apse, which became a mihrab (a tower built earlier during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon), was extended upward to make a minaret, a minbar was installed, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints and other Christian images.
Despite the changes that accompanied the Parthenon, conversion into a church and then into a mosque, its structure remains largely unchanged. In 1667, Turkish traveler Evliya Celebi expressed admiration for the Parthenon sculptures and figuratively described the building as “a kind of impregnable fortress not created by man.” He composed poetic prayers: “the work of lesser human hands than Heaven itself must stand for a long time.”
The French artist Jacques Kerry visited the Acropolis in 1674 and made sketches of the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon. In early 1687, an engineer named Plantier painted the Parthenon for the Frenchman Gravi Dortier. These images, especially those made by Kerry, became important evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its sculptures before the destruction in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its works.
Destruction of the Parthenon as a result of the explosion of a gunpowder magazine during the Venetian-Turkish War. 1687 Drawing by an unknown artist.
Destruction
In 1687, the Parthenon was badly damaged in the greatest disaster that has ever befallen it in its long history. The Venetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack and capture the Acropolis. The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a magazine for ammunition - despite the dangers of such use after the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea - and to shelter members of the local Turkish community. On September 26, a Venetian mortar fired from the Philopappa Hill blew up the cellar and partially destroyed the building. The explosion smashed the central part of the building into smithereens and caused the cella to collapse. Greek architect and archaeologist Cornelia Hatziaslani writes that “... three of the four walls of the sanctuary almost collapsed and three-fifths of the frieze sculptures fell. It is obvious that no part of the roof remained in place. Six columns fell on the south side and eight on the north, and nothing remained of the eastern portico, except for one column. Along with the columns, a huge marble architrave, triglyphs and menotopes collapsed.” The explosion killed approximately three hundred people, who were buried in marble debris near the Turkish defenders. It also started several large fires that burned until the next day and destroyed many houses.
During the conflict, notes were made as to whether the destruction was intentional or accidental; One of these records belongs to the German officer Zobifolski, which states that a Turkish deserter gave Morosini information about what the Turks were using the Parthenon for, expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historical importance. In response, Morosini directed artillery at the Parthenon. Subsequently, he attempted to loot sculptures from the ruins and cause further damage to the building. When the soldiers tried to remove the sculptures of Poseidon and the horses of Athena from the western pediment of the building, they fell to the ground and were broken.
The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid confrontation with the large Turkish army assembled at Chalkis; At that time, the Venetians took into account the explosion, after which almost nothing was left of the Parthenon and the rest of the Acropolis, and rejected the possibility of its further use by the Turks as a fortress, but such an idea was not pursued.
After the Turks recaptured the Acropolis, they built a small mosque within the walls of the destroyed Parthenon, using the ruins from the explosion. Over the next century and a half, the remaining parts of the structure were looted for building materials and other valuables.
The 18th century was the period of the “sick man of Europe”; as a result, many Europeans were able to visit Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon became the subject of many paintings and drawings, spurring the growth of the philhellenes and helping to awaken British and French sympathy for Greek independence. Among these early travelers and archaeologists were James Stewart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettantes to explore the ruins of classical Athens.
They created drawings of the Parthenon, while taking measurements, which in 1787 published in two volumes Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated (Antiquities of Athens: Measured and Delineated). In 1801, the British ambassador to Constantinople, the Earl of Elgin, received a dubious firman (decree) from the Sultan, whose existence or legitimacy has not been proven to this day, to make casts and drawings of the antiquities of the Acropolis, and to demolish the last buildings, if necessary examine the antiquities, and remove the sculptures .
Independent Greece
When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible part of the minaret was destroyed; Only its base and the spiral staircase up to the architrave level remained intact. Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings built on top of the Acropolis were destroyed. However, Joly de Lotbinière's photograph of a small mosque in the cella of the Parthenon survives, published in Lerbeau's album Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis. This area became a historical site controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year. They follow the road at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage.
Marble sculpture controversy
The center of the dispute was the marble sculptures taken by the Earl of Elgin from the Parthenon, which are in the British Museum. There are also several sculptures from the Parthenon on display in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but more than fifty percent are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens. Some can still be seen on the building itself. Since 1983, the Greek government has been campaigning to return the sculptures to Greece from the British Museum.
The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures, and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the museum to do so (which would have required legislative grounds). However, negotiations between senior representatives of the Greek and British ministries of culture and their legal advisers took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, with hopes that both sides could move closer to a resolution.
© website, in the photo: Parthenon columns in scaffolding
Recovery
In 1975, the Greek government began a coordinated effort to restore the Parthenon and other structures on the Acropolis. After some delay, the Committee for the Conservation of Monuments of the Acropolis was created in 1983. The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. The archaeological committee carefully documented every artifact remaining there, and with the help of computer models, architects determined their original location. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed to move the marble blocks. In some cases, previous reconstructions turned out to be incorrect. Dismantling was carried out, and the restoration process began anew. Originally, the various blocks were held together by elongated iron H-joints, which were completely coated with lead to protect the iron from corrosion. The stabilizing connectors added in the 19th century were less leaded and susceptible to corrosion. Since the product of corrosion (rust) tends to expand, it caused further damage to the already cracked marble. All new metalwork consisted of titanium, a strong, lightweight and corrosion-resistant material.
The Parthenon will not be restored to its pre-1687 condition, but damage from the explosion will be repaired to the extent possible. In the interest of restoring the building's structural integrity (important in this seismic zone) and aesthetic integrity, the broken portions of the column drums and lintels will be filled using precision-cut marble anchored in place. New Pentelic marble from the original quarry is used. Eventually, almost all large pieces of marble will be placed where they originally were, supported, if necessary, by modern materials. Over time, the white repaired parts will become less noticeable compared to the original surfaces that were exposed to weathering.
reconstruction of the internal hall
For almost 2,500 years, the Parthenon has reigned over Athens, the Temple of the Virgin Athena - the symbol of the city, the pride of ancient architecture. Many experts consider it the most beautiful and harmonious temple of the Ancient World. And most tourists who see the Parthenon with their own eyes share this opinion.
History of construction
For many years after the destruction of the main temple of Athena, the Hekatompedon, by the Persians, there was no sanctuary in Athens worthy of the patroness of the city. Only after the end of the Greco-Persian wars in 449 BC. e. the Athenians had enough money for large-scale construction.
The construction of the Parthenon began during the reign of Pericles, one of the greatest political figures of Ancient Greece. This was the "golden age" of Attica. Recognition of the leading role of Athens in the fight against the Persians led to the creation of the Delian Maritime League, which included 206 Greek city-states. In 464 BC. e. The treasury of the union was transported to Athens. After this, the rulers of Attica had virtually no control over the funds of most of the states of Greece.
The money was used not only to fight the Persians. Huge amounts of money were spent by Pericles on grandiose construction work. During his reign, a magnificent temple ensemble grew on the Acropolis, the center of which was the Parthenon.
Construction of the Parthenon began in 447 BC. e. at the highest point of the Acropolis hill. Here back in 488 BC. e. The site for the new temple was prepared and work began on its construction, but at the initial stage they were interrupted by the renewed war.
The Parthenon project belonged to the architect Ictinus, and the progress of the work was supervised by Callicrates. The great sculptor Phidias took an active part in the construction of the temple, who was engaged in the external and internal decoration of the building. The best craftsmen of Greece were involved in the construction, and the general control of the work was carried out by Pericles himself.
The consecration of the temple took place in 438 at the annual Panathenaic Games, but the finishing work on the building was finally completed only in 432 BC. e.
Architectural appearance of the Parthenon
Architecturally, the temple is a classical peripterus with one row of Doric columns. There are 50 columns in total - 8 on the end and 17 on the sides. The width of the end sides is larger than the traditional one - 8 columns instead of 6. This was done at the request of Phidias, who sought to achieve the maximum width of the cella, the interior space. The height of the columns was 19.4 meters with a diameter at the bottom of 1.9 m. The corner ones were somewhat thicker - 1.95 m. Towards the top, the thickness of the columns decreased. Each column has 20 longitudinal grooves - flutes - machined into it.
The entire building rests on a three-stage base 1.5 m high. The size of the upper platform of the base, the stylobate, is 69.5 by 30.9 meters. Behind the outer row of columns, two more steps with a total height of 0.7 m were built, on which the walls of the temple stand.
The main entrance to the Parthenon was located on the side opposite the main entrance to the Acropolis - the Propylaea. Thus, to get inside, the visitor had to walk around the building on one side.
The total length of the temple (without the colonnade) is 59 m, width 21.7. The eastern part of the temple, where the sanctuary of Athena itself was located, had an external size of 30.9 m and was called the hecatompedon, “one hundred feet” (Attic foot - 30.9 cm). The length of the cella was 29.9 m. The cella was divided into three naves by two rows of 9 Doric columns. In the middle nave there was an altar of the goddess, as well as the famous statue of Athena Parthenos, the creation of Phidias.
The western part of the building was occupied by an opisthodome - a room in which offerings to Athena and the state archive were kept. The dimensions of the opisthodome were 13.9 x 19.2 m. It was here that the treasury of the Delian League was transported. The name of the opisthodome, Parthenon, was subsequently transferred to the entire temple.
The building was built from marble quarried from Mount Pentelikon, 20 km away. from Athens. The peculiarity of Pentelicon marble is that, being almost white immediately after extraction, over time it acquires a yellowish color. This explains the golden hue of the Parthenon. The marble blocks were held together with iron pins, which were inserted into drilled grooves and filled with lead.
Unique project Iktina
Art historians consider the Parthenon to be a standard of harmony and harmony. His silhouette is flawless. However, in reality there are practically no straight lines in the outlines of the temple.
Human vision perceives objects somewhat distorted. Iktin took full advantage of this. Columns, cornices, roofing - all lines are slightly curved, thereby creating the optical illusion of their ideal straightness.
A building as significant as the Parthenon, located on a flat area, would visually “press through” the base, so the stylobate was made rising towards the center. The temple itself was moved away from the center of the Acropolis to the south-eastern corner, so as not to overwhelm the visitor entering the citadel. The sanctuary seems to grow as you approach it.
The solution to the colonnade is interesting. Ideally straight columns would seem too thin, so they have an imperceptible thickening in the middle. To create a feeling of lightness of the building, the columns were installed slightly inclined towards the center. The corner columns were made slightly thicker than the others, which gave the building visual stability. The spans between the columns increase towards the center, but to the viewer walking along the colonnade it seems that they are exactly the same.
By using this feature of human perception in the Parthenon project, Iktin thereby discovered one of the fundamental principles on which the architecture of subsequent centuries grew.
Parthenon sculptures
The best craftsmen of Greece took part in the work on the sculptures of the temple. The general supervision of the sculptural decoration of the sanctuary was carried out by Phidias. He is also the author of the main shrine of the Parthenon - the statue of Athena the Virgin.
The best preserved is the bas-relief frieze that encircled the entire temple above the colonnade. The total length of the frieze is 160 meters. It depicts a solemn procession in honor of Athena. Among the participants in the procession are elders, girls with palm branches, musicians, horsemen, chariots, and young men leading sacrificial animals. Above the entrance to the temple is depicted the final act of Panathenaia - the priest of Athena, surrounded by gods and the most prominent citizens of Attica, accepts peplos (a type of women's outerwear) woven by the Athenians as a gift to the goddess.
Remarkable works of art are the Parthenon metopes - relief images that were located above the frieze. Of the 92 metopes, 57 have survived to this day. The reliefs are grouped thematically and are dedicated to subjects common in Hellas. Above the eastern entrance was depicted the battle of the gods with the giants, above the entrance to the opisthodome in the west - the battle of the Hellenes with the Amazons. The metopes of the south reproduced the battle of the Lapiths with the centaurs. The metopes of the northern part, which told about the Trojan War, suffered the most.
The pediment sculptures have survived only in fragments. They depicted key moments for Athens. The eastern group reproduced the scene of the birth of Athena, and the western pediment depicted the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the right to become the patron of Attica. Legendary figures from the history of Athens are depicted next to the gods. Alas, the condition of the sculptures does not allow us to accurately determine the identity of most of them.
In the central nave of the temple there was a statue of Athena 12 meters high. Phidias used the chrysoelephantine technique, when he first created a wooden frame for the sculpture, and plates of gold, representing clothing, and ivory, imitating open parts of the body, were fixed on it.
Descriptions and copies of the statue have been preserved. The goddess was depicted wearing a comb helmet and standing at full height, but otherwise eyewitness accounts differ. Famous geographer of the 2nd century AD. e. Pausanias claimed that Athena held a spear in one hand, and in the palm of her other hand stood the messenger of victory, Nike. At Athena’s feet lay a shield, and on the goddess’s chest was an aegis - a shell with the head of Medusa the Gorgon. In the copies, the goddess rests on a shield, but there is no spear at all.
On one side of the shield the battle of the gods with the giants was depicted, on the other - the battle of the Greeks with the Amazons. Ancient authors passed on the legend that Phidias depicted Pericles and himself on the relief. He was later accused of blasphemy for this and died in prison.
The further fate of the Parthenon
The temple was highly revered throughout Greece even after the decline of Athens. Thus, Alexander the Great made rich donations to the Parthenon.
However, the new rulers of Attica treated the sanctuary with much less respect. In 298 BC. e. By order of the tyrant Lahar, the golden parts of the statue of Athena were removed. In the 2nd century AD e. There was a severe fire in the Parthenon, but the building was restored.
Timeline of changes in the appearance of the Parthenon from the moment of construction to the present day
In 426, the Parthenon became the Temple of Hagia Sophia. The statue of Athena was transported to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in a fire. In 662, the temple was reconsecrated in honor of the Mother of God, and a bell tower was added to it.
The Turks, who conquered Athens in 1460, built a mosque in the Parthenon, rebuilding the bell tower into a minaret, and in 1687 tragedy struck. During the siege of Athens by the Venetians, a Turkish gunpowder warehouse was set up in the temple. The cannonball hitting the barrels of gunpowder caused a powerful explosion, which destroyed the middle part of the building.
The destruction of the temple continued in peacetime, when city residents stole the marble blocks for their own needs. At the beginning of the 19th century, the bulk of the sculptures were exported to England with the permission of the Sultan. Nobody cared about the building itself until Greece gained independence. The Parthenon was recognized as part of the historical heritage of Greece, and restoration work began in the 20s of the 20th century. The Foundation for the Preservation of the Parthenon, listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has been established.
Work to restore the Parthenon is ongoing. Alas, there is no hope of seeing the temple in its original form - too much has been lost. However, even in its current state, the Parthenon is a masterpiece of ancient architecture and leaves no doubt about the genius of the architects and builders who once erected it.
The culture of Ancient Greece is famous for its immortal architectural and sculptural masterpieces. The majestic antique style of construction is rightfully considered one of the best examples of ancient art. The most famous example of this style is the Parthenon.
The Great Temple: the meaning of the word "Parthenon"
Construction of the Parthenon began in Athens in 447 BC, and construction was completed in 432 BC. The temple was named after the goddess Athena Parthenos, who was its patron. The word “Parthenos” itself translated from ancient Greek means “virgin”.
The temple was designed by Calicrates and Ictinus during the reign of Pericles, and it was built on the foundation of the old one. The ruler of Athens planned to make the Parthenon a symbol of the greatness of his state. Mostly marble was used for its construction, only the roof was wooden. To date, scientists have found that all parts of the complex of temple buildings with the Acropolis have a “golden proportion” relationship.
Where is the Parthenon?
The famous Athenian temple dedicated to Athena the Virgin is located in the city center, on the highest point of the Acropolis. Therefore, you can watch from almost everywhere. At night, it looks especially attractive because it is specially illuminated.
The Parthenon has experienced many events during its lifetime. It was plundered by conquerors, survived a strong fire, after which it was restored. In 426 AD. the temple was turned into a Christian church, and after the conquest
Greece is famous throughout the world, first of all, for its glorious ancient history, which left an incredible amount of cultural monuments. Thus, in the capital of the country, on a high hill, the monumental marble Parthenon, the main sanctuary of ancient Athens, rises above the bustle of the city. Almost 2.5 thousand years have passed since the construction of this majestic structure, which managed to survive all the troubles and hardships that befell it. Today this temple is protected by the world organization UNESCO and is gradually returning its facades to their former luxurious appearance.
History and significance of the Parthenon in Ancient Greece
The Parthenon (Greek Παρθενών, English the Parthenon) is a classic ancient Greek temple in Athens, distinguished by its unique architectural forms.
It is impossible to tell the story of the construction of this sanctuary without mentioning in which city and what country the Parthenon is located, as well as what customs and beliefs prevailed at the time of its construction. Therefore, first we will take a short historical excursion to ancient Athens and get acquainted with the deity to whom the Parthenon is dedicated to this day.
Patroness of Athens
Zeus Ancient Greece was dominated by a polytheistic religious system based on the myths of the various Gods of Ancient Greece. In connection with the Parthenon, we are interested in the main god - Zeus, and his daughter Athena.
The myth says that Zeus was predicted to have a daughter, followed by a son who would overthrow him from the throne. Therefore, when his wife Metis (Wisdom) became pregnant from him, the Supreme God did not find anything better than to swallow her. But the child of love did not want to give up, and soon Zeus began to have an unbearable headache. Unable to endure the torment, he ordered his head to be cut, and so his daughter Athena was born. Wisdom was reflected in the girl’s eyes, and on her body she wore military attire, for which she was called the Goddess of justice, wisdom, military tactics and strategy.
Unlike other deities, Athena did not stay too long on Olympus, but paid attention to ordinary people. She gave them a lot of knowledge and crafts, taught them how to draw up laws and conduct government affairs, and helped restore justice in disputes and battles. For her care, the grateful people of Greece greatly revered the wise and magnanimous Athena and sought to build the best of Greek temples in her honor.
Athena After a dispute with Poseidon, wisely resolved by King Cecrops, Athena became the patroness of the most important cultural and political center of Ancient Greece - the city of Athens. Therefore, it was decided that the Acropolis of Athens would place the Parthenon on its lands.
And if we delve deeper into history, it is worth mentioning that the architectural complex that has come down to us had a predecessor. The first temple to be built on this site was Hekatompedon, also dedicated to Athena. Unfortunately, as a result of the Persian attack, the structure failed to survive. When the Athenians won the war, they began with even greater enthusiasm to restore the old Hekatompedon and build a new, larger and more luxurious Parthenon temple in recaptured Athens.
Construction of the Parthenon
Construction of the new sanctuary began in 447. The location of the temple was chosen immediately. It was located in the upper city: the majestic Parthenon and the sacred Acropolis in the minds of the Greeks were supposed to become one.
The decision to build the temple was made by the Athenian ruler Pericles, despite the fact that the construction of the Parthenon required large financial investments. The construction budget included 450 talents, an amount unheard of for the Greeks, because in those days they built an entire ship for 1 talent! There was indignation and grumbling among the people, but Pericles managed to convince people of the need to decorate the Parthenon Acropolis with unprecedented beauty and power in honor of Athena.
The architect of the building was Callicrates, and the design of the future shrine was developed by Iktin. It was this master who achieved a unique optical perception of the temple by the eye, having decided to make the columns of the Parthenon not perfectly straight and at an angle. The famous sculptor Phidias (author of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia) was responsible for the external and internal decoration of the shrine, as well as the sculptures decorating the pediments of the Parthenon.
The architectural type of the temple is designed in the classical Greek style and has a Doric perimeter surrounded by columns. There are a total of 50 columns on all sides of the Parthenon: 8 on the central facades, and 17 on the side facades. Unlike the Colosseum, the colonnade of the classical Parthenon allows you to view the facade of three sides of the building from one point. The height of the erected temple was 14 m, width 31 m and length 70 m.
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The Parthenon was finally built in 438, and in the same year the temple was consecrated at the Festival of Panathaeus. However, another 6 years after the official opening, Phidias decorated the pediments and friezes of the erected Parthenon. He also invented and sculpted the sculpture of Athena Parthenos (Virgin, Virgin), in whose honor the sanctuary received its name.
Periods of decline and revival
The Parthenon Temple of Athena, located in the city center on the Acropolis, has gone through a lot over the years. A brief summary of the history of the Parthenon is as follows.
After its construction, the temple was revered for approximately 100 years. Its last patron was Alexander the Great, who donated 14 shields for the eastern pediment and the armor of defeated warriors to the shrine. After his death, dark days awaited the Parthenon.
The rulers allowed themselves to plunder the temple’s precious decor and turn the shrine almost into a brothel. And in the 3rd century BC. A major fire broke out in the building, destroying part of the roof, ceilings and doors of the shrine. It also caused the sculpture of Athena Parthenos to disappear without a trace. After the fire, the temple was restored, but the Parthenon looked a little different.
After 800 years, the ancient sanctuary was destined to turn into a Christian cathedral. All the ancient wealth was taken to Constantinople, and the temple itself was again slightly rebuilt in a new way. Centuries passed, and in the 15th century the Parthenon became a Muslim mosque, because... Athens was captured by the Turks. They painted over all the scenes that contradicted their faith, but nothing else was touched on the interior decoration.
Later, in 1687, ammunition was stored here during the war. The shelling of the Acropolis from above and a direct hit on the boxes of gunpowder literally turned the Parthenon into ruins. For two hundred years these fragments stood on the hill as a memory of the former glorious past. In 1840, attention was again paid to the ancient sanctuary and it was decided to carry out its restoration. This process continues to this day with varying degrees of success.
Where is the Parthenon and how to get to it
In the minds of many travelers, Greece is primarily Athens and the Parthenon.
Tourists will not have to wander for long through the streets of Athens, looking for the place where the ancient Parthenon is located. It is very easy to find it, because... The main temple of Athens, like the Roman Pantheon, is located in the historical center of the capital.
The guiding landmark is the Acropolis, the main sanctuary in Greece, located on an elevated hill. To get there, take the red line of the local metro and get to the Akropolis station of the same name. You will enter the pedestrian street Dionysiou Areopagitou, which, gradually rising uphill, will lead you directly to the Temple of Athena.
Dionysiou Areopagitou street Features of the Parthenon architecture
Unfortunately, the Parthenon, the ancient Greek temple of the goddess Athena and a monument of ancient architecture, has not survived to this day in all its glory. According to the surviving descriptions of the architectural complex, it was an innovation and breakthrough in Greek architecture of that time.
Surrounded by Doric columns, the Temple of the goddess of wisdom Athena was supposed to be the most majestic and luxurious building in Greece. But due to subsequent actions of Christian and Muslim invaders, the temple lost most of the elements of ancient decor.
The eastern pediment of the building was decorated with the sculptural composition “The Birth of Athena,” and the western part was dedicated to the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for patronage of the Greek capital. The historical scenes contained friezes and metopes of the Parthenon. In particular, they depicted the battle of gods with giants, as well as battles with Amazons, episodes of the Trojan War and solemn processions.
The statue of Athena, made of wood and decorated with gold and ivory, deserves special attention. Phidias did not spare a whole ton of gold for the brilliance and grandeur of his statue, and his descendants plundered it a century after the construction of the temple.
But the distinctive features of the architectural design are hidden not in the decor, but in the base of the temple.
Layout
The heights of the Acropolis provide natural protection during a siege, so no thought was given to the defensive function during the construction of the temple.
When we think about the great civilizations in human history, it is impossible not to think of the ancient Greeks. Many centuries ago, Western culture was born on their land, from law and politics to athletics and architecture. Remnants of the former glory of one of the most advanced civilizations in the world still excite the imagination, and it is unlikely that there will be such an iconic architectural monument that will be more reminiscent of Ancient Greece than the Parthenon.
As one of the most famous landmarks in the world, the Parthenon attracts millions of tourists every year who seek to see its majestic forms with their own eyes. Naturally, with such a long history of existence, there will always be interesting facts that it would be nice for a modern person to know about in order to have an idea about this iconic architectural structure.
A little history: Situated on the Acropolis in Athens, the Parthenon was built during the greatest period of the Greek Empire. Its construction began back in 447 BC, in 9 years the main work was completed, but it took another 6 years to decorate it with decorative elements. Despite the fact that the construction method cannot be called innovative, nevertheless, the proportions of the Parthenon have been studied for centuries and have become the canon of classical architecture.
1. The temple was built in honor of the Greek goddess Athena
The Parthenon was built in honor of the goddess Pallas Athena, who was considered not only the patroness of Athens, but also of crafts, art, knowledge and science. She was also revered as the goddess of wisdom, victorious war, and defender of justice and law. Taking into account all the virtues of their patroness, the Greeks built the majestic Parthenon on the site of the old temple of the goddess as a sign of gratitude for the victory over the Persian invaders.
2. Origin of the name Parthenon
The name Parthenon comes from the Greek word παρθενών, which translates as “apartments for unmarried women.” The word is believed to refer specifically to one room in the Parthenon, although historians still debate which room it was. At the moment, there are different theories; it is quite possible that the name of the temple refers to the maidens (parthenoi), who participated in sacrifices to the goddess Athena; it was this action that guaranteed the safety of the city.
3. The Parthenon is located on a sacred site
The history of the Acropolis goes back much further than the Parthenon itself. In fact, the temple is located on the site of a much older temple dedicated to Athena, which is now called the Prethephenon or Old Parthenon. This old temple was destroyed during the Persian War in 480 BC, and it was destroyed during the construction stage, so even the ancient Greeks could not see the shrine in its finished form. Only 30 years later, after a devastating war, the Greeks decided to revive this place again and still build a majestic structure, the ruins of which we can see even after more than one millennium.
4. The Parthenon is one of the best examples of Greek architecture
The Parthenon became one of the iconic examples of architecture of the ancient Greeks, who created it in the form of a peripterus - a temple surrounded by columns in the Doric order. The structure of the building measures 30.9 by 69.5 meters and consists of two internal chambers (cells). A 12-meter statue of the goddess Athena was installed in the eastern cella. In the western chamber the main treasury of the Union of Greek city-states (Delian League) was located; only priests could be in it, who were responsible for the safety of the treasury.
Considering that the Parthenon was built in the best traditions of the architectural canons of the Doric order, which means that its columns have carved shafts and simple capitals. The impressive pediments that crowned each corner of the building were decorated with sculptures, and a continuous frieze ran around each inner chamber and column spandrels.
5. The Parthenon did not serve as a temple
Although we are accustomed to talking about the Parthenon as a temple - and it looks like a religious building, in ancient times the main cult image of Pallas Athena was located in another area of the Acropolis. While inside the Parthenon there was a majestic statue of Athena, which was created by the famous sculptor Phidias, but it was not associated with any specific cult and therefore was not worshiped.
6. Statue of Athena in the Parthenon
Despite the fact that the Parthenon was not a cult temple, it was created so that it could accommodate the 12-meter statue of Athena Parthenos, which was created by Phidias. The legendary sculptor and architect depicted Athena as the goddess of war. The patroness's head was decorated with a golden helmet; in her right hand she holds a statue of the winged Nike, and in her left hand she leans on a shield. The frame of the statue, made of wood, is lavishly decorated with ivory and gold. Unfortunately, Phidias’s creation has been lost, but in Nashville (USA) you can see a full-scale copy of Athena Paladas in a modern interpretation.
7. During Ancient Greece, the Parthenon was bright and colorful
There is an opinion that the architectural structures of antiquity had the natural color of untouched stone or marble, but this is a misconception. The Parthenon - like most Greek architecture and even sculptures were originally painted. While historians debate how much of the structure was covered in color, archaeologists using ultraviolet light discovered pigments that had simply faded away over time and lost their color completely. Research has shown that all the sculptures and carved elements on the pediments, frieze and roof were painted in ultra-blue, red and gold tones.
8. Transformation of an ancient temple into a Christian church
The Parthenon served as a treasury depository and was the temple of the goddess Athena for a thousand years. But when Athens lost its former power and glory, turning into a dilapidated provincial city of the Roman Empire, which could not protect its shrine from the greed of the emperor, who seized all the treasures and took them to Constantinople.
After all these sad events, around the 5th century AD, Patriarch Paul III of Constantinople ordered it to be rebuilt into the Church of St. Sophia. For almost 1 thousand years it served as a place of worship for Christians, until the Ottoman Empire came to these lands.
9. For almost 200 years, the Parthenon acted as... a mosque
It is not surprising that the Parthenon has undergone several transformations over its long history, as this is quite common for many ancient structures. In the 1460s, when Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, the temple was converted into a mosque and served as such for almost 200 years. As the authors of the site learned, the minaret was formed from a tower that was previously used as a bell tower, because before that a Catholic Church was created here.
10. Some Parthenon sculptures are kept in the British Museum
At a time when Greece was still under Ottoman rule, the Scottish nobleman Thomas Bruce removed half of the Parthenon sculptures that had survived at that time. The British claim that he received permission from the Ottomans, and in 1800-1803. they were transported by sea to Great Britain and are now in the British Museum.
But most experts agree that the Parthenon marbles, the greatest example of classical Greek fine art, were sold by enterprising Turks. But be that as it may, for more than a decade Greece has been calling on the British to return unique ancient sculptures to their homeland, but no agreement has been reached on this issue.
Any work of art that has been the main attraction of the country in which it is located for many centuries is surrounded by rumors and legends. Truth and fiction are closely intertwined in traditions and legends passed on from mouth to mouth. The ever-falling Leaning Tower of Pisa was no exception, which for many years has undergone not only the pilgrimage of millions of tourists, but also reconstruction, because