Types of seas with examples. Interesting facts about the sea. Voeikov classification system

St. Petersburg State Marine Technical University

Department of Ship Automation and Measurements

ABSTRACT

by discipline: “Subjects and objects of maritime law”

Subject: "Classification of oceans and seas"


PERFORMED BY: Shitov S.Yu.

CHECKED BY: Professor Alekseev A.V.

St. Petersburg, 2007

Nutrient concentrations are low because the remains of plankton and other organisms settle lower. We have read and heard many times that waters occupy a larger distribution on the planet than the emerging lands. Although this difference is 40% in favor of waters, the world we live in is called Earth, not water. To this day, the man of the sea and his knowledge that he still considers it a mystery, a hostile and little-known environment. This is partly true because, even though maps of the ocean floor have reached the deepest depths, we are constantly surprised by the existence of species that we thought were extinct or others that we did not know existed.

ABSTRACT


Report 16 pp., 2 figures, 4 tables, literature - 9 titles.

DIVISION OF THE EARTH'S SPACE, WORLD OCEAN, SEA, CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, OTTO KRUMMEL, VOEYKOV A.I.

The purpose of the work is to trace changes in the classifications of oceans and seas over time. The object of study is the classification of oceans and seas.

Their relationships with other planetary systems, especially the atmosphere, and the results and phenomena they produce are also little known or currently being studied. Suffice it to say that the El Niño phenomenon began to be studied in the 70s of the last century, although it was observed several hundred years ago, and when they began to deepen their knowledge in the Pacific Ocean, it was discovered that it also had an effect in the Atlantic and in the Indian Ocean. We have no doubt that one day their relationships with the Arctic and Antarctic oceans will also be discovered.


Dividing the spaces of the Earth. The sea occupies much more space than land. The world ocean is a body of water surrounding land. Sea - a part of the ocean more or less isolated by land, islands or elevated underwater terrain. Until recently, science was dominated by the old classical classification system, introduced in 1845 by the Royal Geographical Society of London. The world ocean was divided into 5 main parts: the Pacific Ocean (47%), the Atlantic Ocean (24%), the Indian Ocean (20%), the Southern Arctic Ocean (5%) and the Northern. Arctic Ocean (4%). Recently, a new, more rational classification by Krummel, introduced in 1878, has begun to prevail. Krummel rightly rejects the identification of a special Southern Arctic Ocean, because its boundaries cannot be drawn anywhere. The so-called Southern Arctic Ocean has to be distributed by longitude between three large oceans. The Arctic Ocean is excluded for another reason - it has the character of a sea surrounded by land rather than a real ocean, and, moreover, its depth, with few exceptions, is very shallow. Finally, in 1895, A.I. Voeikov proposed dividing the seas (adhering to Krummel’s view of the oceans proper) as follows: Mediterranean seas, island seas, transitional seas, bays or marginal seas. The Southern Arctic Ocean is 1/2 part of the Pacific Ocean, and 1/4 part of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.

As the liquid element of the planet, the sea is continuous, that is, it is one. There are no barriers or fences that limit it; however, its waters differ from one region or zone to another, but who sets them? The main reason is the atmosphere, especially the climate, which varies regionally on the planet and imprints these characteristics on the waters that are found in it. Among the secondary elements that contribute to these differences is the particular geography of each region.

Some doubts regarding large volumes of water, over time they were called oceans. The Spanish conquest of the "New World" gave them more knowledge of this, although the Vikings had already sailed the Atlantic before Columbus, and the Polynesians had done so in the Pacific, while the Chinese had mapped the world in which they observed the American continent many years before before the Spaniards set out to sea. The terms "sea" and "ocean" are often used synonymously to refer to salt water. However, from a human and human perspective, the sea is a body of water substantially smaller than the ocean.


INTRODUCTION

1. Separation of the Earth’s spaces …………………………………………………

2. Classification system of the London Geographical Society ………….

3. Krümmel classification system……………………………………………

4. Voeikov’s classification system……………………………………………..

5. Scheme of classifications of oceans and seas……………………………..…………

On the other hand, the seas have some areas in the oceans, are smaller in size than these, and according to their characteristics have received different names, although such nomenclature is completely arbitrary. One of the classifications that have been developed in the seas presents them in three large groups: closed or inland seas, coastal seas and continental seas. The first are the seas, which are isolated from the oceans and other seas, so they are completely cut off from marine life, however the characteristic of its salt water is considered seas.

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………..

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………


Introduction

Most of the surface of our planet is occupied by water. The problem of classifying water resources arises. In this abstract, three options for solving this problem will be considered: the classification system of the London Geographical Society, the classification system of Otto Krummel, the classification system of A.I. Voeykova.

Among them are Salt Lake Utah, in the United States, and Urmia, on the borders of Armenia. The second are those that are isolated at the edges of the oceans, forming large depressions on the continents, examples of which are the North Sea, in Europe, and the East Siberian Sea, in Russia. Continental seas have special characteristics because the lands have not been able to completely close them, in addition, since they are almost isolated, they present waters with special salinity and temperature values. One of the most famous and important is the Mediterranean Sea.

Department of Ship Automation and Measurements

Great civilizations developed in the environments of this sea and began to navigate it over thousands of years. So the ancients were convinced that they were in the ocean, which in turn named the seas of six of their regions, the Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean, Ligurian, Tyrrhenian and Marmara seas. Another of these examples is the Caribbean Sea, which together with the Gulf of Mexico is considered the American Mediterranean, since the arch of the Antilles and the Strait of Florida separate it from the Atlantic, having as the basis for the west the American continent. We have begun to discover the sea, this liquid body that surrounds us and which we often don't give the attention it deserves as islanders than us, except when we go to the beach.

1. Dividing the Earth's spaces

The surface of our planet Earth consists of continents and seas, or land and water, located so that land occupies only 26.5%, and sea 73.5% of the entire surface of the Earth. The sea occupies a much larger area than land, and there is an even greater difference between the two hemispheres. Thus, in the northern hemisphere, land occupies 40%, and in the southern hemisphere only 14%.

Coastal pollution. The planet's coastal seas have traditionally been used as huge garbage dumps. Given their gigantic size, they were believed to be capable of absorbing and diluting all types and volumes of waste caused by human activity. However, enormous quantities of all kinds of waste have saturated these huge vessels, which, as in the case of the Mediterranean, begin to show obvious symptoms of agony. Every year, billions of tons of toxic substances, radioactive elements, heavy metals such as mercury compounds or chemicals contribute to pollution levels that are still unknown.

Table 1 shows the grouping of land and sea by individual latitudes. It shows that not only across the two hemispheres, but also across the parallels, they are distributed very unevenly.

Table 1 – Percentage of sushi


Hemispheres

northern

Land and water areas are grouped into separate units. The largest units of land are called continents, and the largest units of water are called oceans.

Human pressure on the planet's coastal areas is enormous and growing. Likewise, two-thirds of cities with populations greater than 2.5 million are located near the estuary. The Mediterranean Sea covers only one percent of the ocean's surface; However, it accumulates almost 50% of all pollutant discharges that form in the planet's seas. To unload from the chemical industry we must add a huge amount of detritus of human origin, which accumulates especially in the summer. During this period, an avalanche of tourists almost doubles the population of Mediterranean coastal areas.

The World Ocean - the water space surrounding the land, occupies 71.7% (about 365 million sq. km.). The ocean is a large part of the world's oceans, possessing all the properties inherent in the world's oceans. Parts of the oceans adjacent to land are called seas, bays, bays, and straits.

The sea is a part of the ocean, more or less isolated by land, islands or elevations of underwater relief and differing from the open part of the ocean in hydrological and meteorological conditions: salinity, water temperature, currents, etc. The more closed the sea is by land, the more it differs from the ocean. Sometimes the sea can be an open part of the ocean or a large lake.

The United Nations projects that within 25 years these areas will have a permanent population of 125 million, with an estimated 760 million holiday visitors. More than 75% of marine pollution comes from waste caused by urban and rural land use. Agriculture practiced in the interior typically has a polluting impact on the coastal belt due to the application of fertilizers and biocides that rain down to coastal waters, as well as direct pollution of aquifers by marine connections.

But the most superficial glance at the map is enough to indicate a significant difference between the grouping of land and seas. The parts of the first are truly and sharply separated from each other, that is, surrounded on all sides by seas, and in this regard we can say that there are only islands of different sizes, of which the largest are called continents, therefore, there is only a difference in names. The seas are all in continuous communication with each other and, moreover, with the exception of those that can be called Mediterranean and island, they are connected by wide and deep parts. As a result of this and the mobility of the liquid, constant communication is maintained between all the sea waters of the globe by a system of different movements, of which the more regular and constant ones are called currents. Marine water bodies are divided by size into oceans (the largest parts) and seas.

Also excess nutrients from wastewater, fertilizers, organic waste, etc. causes a process known as eutrophication, consisting of rapid growth of plakton and decomposition of algae, which reduces the proportion of dissolved oxygen and leads to the death of fish and other living forms of the aquatic environment.

Most large fish and marine mammals, which are at the top of the food chain, accumulate unresponsive to toxic substances found in their prey, ultimately introducing significant amounts of mercury, dioxins and organic chlorine into your body, without making food consumption recommended for health more than once per month.

2. London Geographical Society classification system

Until recently, science was dominated by the old classical classification system, introduced in 1845 by the Royal Geographical Society of London. There were 5 different Oceans. The world ocean was divided into 5 main parts: the Pacific Ocean (47%), the Atlantic Ocean (24%), the Indian Ocean (20%), the Southern Arctic Ocean (5%) and the Northern. Arctic Ocean (4%).

It is estimated that half of currently known oil reserves are stored on continental plates. Alluvial deposits of minerals such as copper, iron, tin, silver, lead, tungsten and gemstones are mainly located in estuaries and old rivers. The extraction and transportation of these elements is a source of first-class pollution due to the large number of accidents and accidents that occur and the catastrophic effects that frequent "oil spills" produce on health and the environment.

The Pacific Ocean borders the Arctic Circle from the south, the meridian of Cape Horn and the shores of both Americas from the east, the Bering Strait from the north, and the shores of Asia, the Greater Sunda Islands, Australia, and Tasmania from the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders on the Arctic Circle from the south, on the east - on the meridian of the Cape of Good Hope, on the shores of Africa, Europe, on the north - on the Arctic Circle, on the west - on the shores of America and the meridian of Cape Horn to the Arctic Circle. The Indian Ocean is bordered from the south by the Arctic Circle, from the east by the meridian of Tasmania, the shores of this island, Australia and the Greater Sunda Islands, from the north by the shores of Asia, from the west by the shores of Africa and the meridian of the Cape of Good Hope to the Arctic Circle... Hopes to the Arctic Circle; The Arctic or Arctic Ocean borders the shores of Asia and North America, and where they are interrupted, then the Arctic Circle; The Antarctic or Southern Arctic borders in the north with the southern polar circle, and in the south with the shores of the Antarctic continent. These boundaries also included all parts of the oceans that more or less went deep into the continents, as long as they were in direct connection with them through straits. Such parts of the oceans are called seas and, according to the old classification, were recognized as of two types: internal and external. The first included seas connected to the oceans by narrow straits, for example: the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the second - those adjacent to the oceans on their entire side, for example, the Arabian, Gulf of Guinea.

The Mediterranean supports a very large volume of potentially dangerous maritime traffic in addition to tank washing, which, although prohibited internationally, is a common practice, unmonitored and unpunished. Finally, the modification of the mouths of river basins or the construction of infrastructures in coastal areas, such as ports, piers, breakwaters, the creation of artificial beaches, etc., are highlighted. which lead to catastrophic consequences for the dynamics of coastal waters, by intercepting and changing the sea currents themselves, affecting the distribution of various species and changes in coastal profiles and their biological communities.


3 . Krümmel classification system

Recently, a new, more rational classification by Krummel, introduced in 1878, has begun to prevail. In this system, only the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are accepted as the most extensive, deep and having an independent system of currents. Krummel rightly rejects the identification of a special Southern Arctic Ocean, because its boundaries cannot be drawn anywhere. The further south you go to the high southern latitudes, the more the oceans expand and the percentage of land decreases. There are no natural boundaries here, and the so-called Southern Arctic Ocean has to be distributed by longitude between three large oceans. The Arctic Ocean is excluded for another reason - it has the character of a sea surrounded by land rather than a real ocean, and, moreover, its depth, with few exceptions, is very small; according to Krümmel's classification, this is one of his four Mediterranean seas.

Voeikov classification system

Reduction of commercial resources. The fishing industry is of great importance on a global scale, both because of the benefits it brings and the number of direct and indirect jobs that depend on it. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, more than 90% of the world's marine fisheries, which amount to about 82 million tons, including from aquaculture, are carried out close to the coast or in waters belonging to the continental shelf. Community small-scale fishing accounts for almost half of the amount intended for human consumption, employing more than 12 million people.

The three other Mediterranean seas in this classification divide what Krümmel calls the northern and southern continents. The sea, usually called the Mediterranean, with the Marmara, Black and Azov, separates Europe from Africa and Asia, the sea between Asia and Australia, called the Asian-Australian Mediterranean Sea, separates these two continents; finally, the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of the Caribbean, which he calls the American Mediterranean Sea, separate the continents of North and South America. In addition to the oceans and Mediterranean seas, Krummel also receives the so-called outlying seas, which include, for example, the German Sea, the Gulf of California, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, the East China Sea, the Japanese Sea, the Bering Sea and others. But it will be more convenient to recognize as Mediterranean seas only those that are separated from the oceans and marginal seas by relatively very narrow and shallow straits to such an extent that the entire system of equilibrium of their waters, temperature distribution, etc. are under very weak influence of the ocean. Thus, these real Mediterranean seas are, as it were, transitional to the large salt lakes, our Caspian and Aral, which are usually also given the name of seas. According to this classification, there are only seven Mediterranean seas on the globe, of which four form one common, i.e. interconnected, system, and are connected to the ocean only through the outermost of them. I mean the real so-called Mediterranean Sea with the Marmara, Black and Azov seas. This is the central and most typical Mediterranean sea on the globe. Then, to the North of it is the Baltic Sea, to the South - the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Note that the real Mediterranean seas are located only in the western part of the Old World and nowhere else. They are connected to the ocean not only by relatively narrow and shallow straits, but also by a few: the Mediterranean Sea by one, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf by two, the Baltic by three.

It should be noted that 60% of the population in developing countries obtain more than 40% of their annual protein intake from the sea. The main problem of the fishing sector is the overexploitation of natural resources, the depletion and irreparable destruction of an increasing number of fishing grounds. In some regions, such as the Mediterranean Sea, overexploitation has occurred, which has led to a significant decrease in total catches. The use of new technologies and an increase in population only accelerated this process.

Among the most destructive methods are trawling, which, like a real rake, strips away all the life of the coastal seabed, destroying its vegetation cover and making it impossible to develop the beds of fish and shellfish that are deposited there; Other methods that are extremely harmful to aquatic fauna are large-scale drift art, which, although banned by some countries such as Spain, has not yet been eradicated.


4. Voeikov classification system

Finally, in 1895, A.I. Voeikov proposed dividing the seas (adhering to Krummel’s view of the oceans themselves) as follows: the Mediterranean seas should be recognized as spaces surrounded by 19/20 continents and connected to the oceans or other seas by straits, the width of which is not more than 1 km . for every 5000 sq. km. the total surface of the sea, provided that there are no more than 3 such straits; island - which are 1/5 limited to islands and are connected to the oceans or other seas by many straits, but provided that each is not wider than 300 km; transitional - seas limited on 2/3 of the surface by continents, and the rest connected to other waters by straits wider than 300 km; bays or marginal seas - in which the ratio of the width of the straits to their area is less than 1 km. for 10 sq. km. and the straits are not narrower than the sea itself. According to this classification there will be: Mediterranean - the Mediterranean and the seas connected to it, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Baltic; island - Asian-Australian, American Mediterranean, Japanese and Okhotsk Seas.; transitional - the Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bering Sea, the East China Sea; bays - the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the Bay of Biscay, the Gulf of California, the Gulf of Guinea, the German Sea, etc. Of course, each of the above classifications is not free from reproaches, but their very appearance indicates the progress of this issue.

See what “classification of seas” is in other dictionaries

The lack of recognized ownership of marine resources, and therefore the lack of mechanisms to limit access to fish stocks, has led to uncontrolled overexploitation and depletion for much of this and the previous century. This situation has contributed to the creation of a huge fishing industry that, based on achieving high short-term profits, has left behind destroyed ecosystems and devastated human populations. In the seventies, the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea agreed to establish the sovereignty of coastal states 370 kilometers from their respective littoral areas, giving way to other rules, more or less successful.

Table 2 – Space of oceans and seas according to the classification of A.I. Voeykova

Name

Thousands of square kilometers

Oceans (with bays)

Transitional seas

Island seas

Mediterranean seas

Atlantic


North Arctic


Mediterranean (with Black, etc.)

Baltic


American Mediterranean



Beringovo


East Chinese


Okhotsk

Japanese


Asian-Australian


Indian


Persian Gulf


The Southern Arctic Ocean is 1/2 part of the Pacific Ocean, and 1/4 part of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.

The space of oceans and seas according to the latest classification is shown in Table 2; but since the other two classifications are also found in scientific works, we present these data for both.

Table 3 – Space of oceans and seas according to the classification of the London Geographical Society


Million sq. km.

Million sq. geogr. miles

Taking the Pacific Ocean as a unit

Atlantic

Indian

Antarctic

Arctic

The entire water surface

For classification according to Krümmel's method, we present surfaces and volumes according to the last calculation of Carstens in 1894. This calculation does not agree with Krümmel's classification in only one way, namely, the Southern Arctic Ocean is not divided between three main ones; however, Krummel also gave its value in his previous calculations.

Table 4 – Space of oceans and seas according to Krummel’s classification


Average depths, in m.

Surface area, in sq. km.

Volume, in cubic meters km.

Greatest depths, in m.

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

All oceans

Arctic Mediterranean Sea

Australian-Asian Mediterranean

American Mediterranean

Mediterranean Sea

Hudson Bay

Baltic Sea

Red sea

Persian Gulf

All Mediterranean seas

German Sea

British marginal seas

St. Lawrence Bay

Andaman Sea

East China Sea

Japanese Sea

Sea of ​​Okhotsk

Bering Sea

California Bay

All marginal seas

Atlantic Ocean with its seas

Indian Ocean and its seas

The Pacific Ocean with its seas

Southern Arctic Sea


In this table in the last column the greatest depths are given according to the latest research, and for the Southern Arctic Ocean the depth found

Rice. 1. Scheme of classifications of oceans and seas


Rice. 2. Map of planet Earth

Ross and in modern times accepted by Murray, editor of the works of the Challenger expedition.


5. Scheme of classifications of oceans and seas

In Fig. 1. shows a diagram of the classifications of oceans and seas in accordance with:

1. Classification of the London Geographical Society 1845

2. Classification by Krummel Otto 1878

3. Classification by Voeikov A.I. 1895

CONCLUSION


In this abstract, various ways of dividing the Earth's water space were considered. The presence of several classifications of oceans and seas suggests that it is difficult to propose an optimal classification the first time. The classifications discussed in this abstract may continue to undergo a number of changes and be supplemented, or a completely new classification will appear. This situation is possible because people’s ideas about the structure of our planet may change as a result of various scientific experiments and research.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gatsunaev N.K. Geographers and travelers: A brief biographical dictionary. – M. Ripol Classic, 2001 – 573 p.

2. Kezling A. B. Observatory - geographical atlas of the world. – M.: Uniintekh, 2004 – 180 p.

3. Pirozhnik I.I. Geography of the world's oceans. – M.: TetraSystems, 2006 – 320 p.

4. Pritula T.Yu. Physical geography of continents and oceans. – M.: Vlados, 2004 – 685 p.

5. Stowe D. Encyclopedia of the Oceans. – M.: World of Books, 2007 – 256 p.

6. #"#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""> Data are given according to the latest research by Tillo, “The average height of the continents and the depth of the seas,” in “Izv. I.R. Geographical Society,” 1889)


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Divisions of marine bodies of water (parts of the World Ocean) into types based on natural characteristics. There is no generally accepted K. m. based on taking into account the entire complex of their features. Various K. m. are based on individual characteristics (physiographic, morphological, hydrological, tect.). Krummel (1907) and Shokalsky divided the seas according to their position into Mediterranean seas And marginal seas. Muromtsev (1951) highlights inland, marginal seas And interisland, based on their hydrogeological regime. Bass shape. Strakhov (1954) distinguishes the seas flat and hollow, and according to the position and type of sedimentogenesis - inland And outlying humid and arid zones. By text. signs are usually identified platform seas(Also shelf, epeirogenic) And geosynclinal. Panov (1963) proposes dividing the seas according to text. structure into marginal-continental, shelf, depression and geosynclinal.

Geological Dictionary: in 2 volumes. - M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengoltz et al.. 1978 .

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