Greek classic sculpture. Late classic
The concentration of ever greater wealth in the hands of large slave owners leads at the end of the 5th century. BC e. to a decline in the importance of free labor in city-states, to a crisis of slave-owning democracy. The internecine Peloponnesian War deepened the crisis.
The subordination of the Greek city-states to the powerful Macedonian power that emerged in the Balkans, and the conquests of Alexander the Great in the East put an end to the classical period of Greek history. The collapse of the poleis led to the loss of the ideal of a free citizen in philosophy and art. The tragic conflicts of social reality gave rise to the emergence of a more complex view of the phenomena of life, of man, and led to significant changes in the field of art, which is becoming somewhat contradictory. He loses clear faith in the possibility of a harmonious and perfect life, and the spirit of civic heroism weakens. However, as before, the main artistic task remained the image of a beautiful person; sculpture continued to be largely associated with architecture. But artists increasingly turned to aspects of human existence that did not fit into the mythological images and ideas of the past. Developing and deepening the achievements of high classics, the leading masters of the 4th century. BC posed the problem of conveying the contradictory experiences of a person, showing a hero torn by deep doubts, entering into a tragic struggle with the hostile forces of the surrounding world. The first successes were achieved in revealing the spiritual life of the individual. There arises, albeit in the most general terms, an interest in everyday life and the characteristic features of a person’s psychological make-up.
The Greeks would have seen these statues when visiting Egypt as a trader or mercenaries hired by the Egyptians. Kuroi almost always stands with his arms clasped and his fists clenched, although some have an outstretched hand. They always have their left foot slightly forward, and this pose was also common in Egyptian sculpture. Kuroi is always naked, wearing no more than a belt, and sometimes boots. Their faces show the cultural influence of Crete: they wear long hair braided or decorated with pearls in the Cretan style, and their eyes sometimes have a typical Egyptian look, which copied Cretan art.
Architecture
The development of architecture was uneven. In the first third of the 4th century. BC e. There was a well-known decline in construction activity, reflecting the economic and social crisis of the Greek city-states. This decline was most acutely felt in Athens, which was defeated in the Peloponnesian War. Subsequently, construction developed quite intensively, especially in the periphery.
Buildings of the 4th century. before i. e. followed the principles of the order system. Along with temples, the construction of theaters, which were usually located in the open air, became widespread. Seats for spectators were cut out along the hillside (the theater at Epidaurus had 52 rows of benches), framing a round or semicircular orchestra - a platform on which the choir and artists performed. The acoustics of the theater in Epidaurus are amazingly perfect.
Constructions appeared dedicated to the exaltation of an individual or an autocratic monarch. In honor of the victory in the choir competition, subsidized by the wealthy Athenian Lysicrates, a monument was built in Athens (334 BC), which was a slender cylinder decorated with pilasters.
Erected on a cubic plinth and topped with a cone-shaped roof, it is topped with an acroteria - a kind of stand for the prize - a tripod. The monument, small in size, gives the impression of harmony and grandeur thanks to the skillful use of the Corinthian order. A completely different scale and character of forms distinguishes the Halicarnassus Mausoleum - the grandiose monumental tomb of the Kari ruler Mausolus (c. 353 BC).
In cemeteries they showed the deceased as an ideal type of masculinity. In the early days, Kuroi were supposed to have magical powers and be representations of the gods, the oldest known sources, Kouri had two uses: they were given to temples as sacrifices of the rich. Greek citizens, as can be seen from the inscriptions that appear on their pedestal. They were also placed in cemeteries to mark the grave of important citizens.
BC. Kuroi became larger because the Greeks were richer and had more experience in marble sculpture. Some were three or four times the size of a human. The inscription to its right suggests that the statue was dedicated to Hera with the Ionic noble name Isk. Most Kouri were commissioned by aristocrats, offered in temples or by aristocratic families to place on their tombs. Marble sculpture was very expensive, and only the richest could afford to pay sculptors to create such works. Kuroy fell out of fashion, both politically and artistically.
Sculpture
The general character of late classical sculpture was determined by the further development of realistic trends.
Skopas. The tragic contradictions of the era found their deepest embodiment in the work of the greatest master of the first half of the 4th century. before i. e. Skopas, who worked in different cities of Ancient Greece. Preserving the traditions of monumental art of high classics, Skopas imbued his works with great drama, striving for a multifaceted disclosure of images, complex feelings and experiences of a person. The heroes of Skopas, like the heroes of high classics, embodied the perfect qualities of strong and valiant people. But gusts of passion disrupted the harmonious clarity of the images and gave them a pathetic character. Skopas discovered the realm of the tragic in man himself, introducing themes of suffering and internal breakdown into art. These are the images of wounded warriors from the pediments of the Temple of Athena in Tegea (mid-4th century BC, Athens, National Archaeological Museum). The head of a warrior from the western pediment is given in a swift, pathetic turn, a sharp, restless play of chiaroscuro emphasizes the dramatic expression. The harmonic structure of the face is disrupted to reveal internal tension.
Among the first representations of real people are the statues of Tyrannoctons, erected in Athens before -500. These sculptures still show the formal character of Kuroi, but are more realistic. Significantly, these statues signified the emergence of Athenian democracy, signaling the replacement of culture by the kura and the aristocratic system that accompanied it. The two years of Guinnacio offer the young man the opportunity to acquire, thanks to the knowledge of the best authors, a heritage that will be further deepened in high school, and in the meantime to develop the taste and ability of supporters and feelings. realize his aesthetic judgment.
Head of a wounded warrior from the western pediment of the Temple of Athena-Alen at Tega
Skonas preferred to work in marble, almost abandoning the material favored by the masters of high classics - bronze. Marble made it possible to convey a subtle play of light and shadow, and various textural contrasts. His “Maenad” (“Bacchae”, c. 350 BC, Dresden, Sculptural Collection), which survived in a small damaged antique copy, embodies the image of a man possessed by a violent impulse of passion. The dance of the Maenad is swift, the head is thrown back, the hair falls in a heavy wave onto the shoulders. The movement of the curved folds of her chiton emphasizes the rapid impulse of the body.
Skopas's heroes appear either deeply thoughtful, elegiac, or lively and passionate, but they are always harmonious and significant. The frieze of the Halicarnassus Mausoleum depicting the battle of the Greeks with the Amazons (c. 350 BC, London, British Museum) has been preserved. The part of the frieze performed by Skopas is full of rapid dynamics and tension. The uniform and gradually increasing movement of the Parthenon frieze is replaced by a rhythm of emphatically contrasting oppositions, sudden pauses, and bursts of movement. The sharp contrast of light and shadow emphasizes the drama of the composition. The name of Skopas is associated with a remarkable tombstone of a young man (“Tombstone of a young man from Attica,” c. 340 BC, Athens, National Archaeological Museum).
The influence of Skopas's art on the further development of Greek plastic arts was enormous, and can only be compared with the influence of the art of his contemporary, Praxiteles.
The teacher will study Italian and Latin comparative syntactic reviews as a continuation of the syntactic reflections done in previous classes. Such research and reflection will be directed in particular to the syntax of the sentence and the period in its main lines. They will also give brief introductions to prosody and metrics. Steps from various Italian and Latin authors will be studied and read for this purpose.
Prose and poetry as above. Promesi Sposi. Mastery of our language; ability to evaluate work, sensitivity in exploring natural processes, movements of the mind, concepts, will now test students in collective competitions for accurate and beautiful expression and in writing.
Praxiteles.
In his work, Praxiteles turned to images imbued with the spirit of clear and pure harmony, calm thoughtfulness, and serene contemplation. Praxiteles and Scopas complement each other, revealing the various states and feelings of a person, his inner world.
Having depicted harmoniously developed, beautiful heroes, Praxiteles also discovered a connection with the art of high classics, however, his images, full of grace and subtle feelings, lost the heroic life affirmation and monumental grandeur of the works of the heyday, acquiring a more lyrically refined and contemplative character.
Praxiteles’ mastery is most fully revealed in the marble group “Hermes with Dionysus” (c. 330 BC, Olympia, Archaeological Museum).
In high school, the most historical method followed in the study of the three literatures will provide a more critical insight into ancient civilization and modernity and their relationship. The study of literature will be accompanied by documentary readings and distinctive styles of both individual authors and entire ages based on these readings, which will be sober in relation to the authors, to reveal the characteristic and distinctive features of authors and eras, as well as to evoke specific oral and written formulations of their feelings and judgments.
Hermes with Dionysus
The graceful curve of the figure of Hermes, the relaxed resting pose of the young slender body, the beautifully inspired face. The master brilliantly uses the ability of marble to convey a soft shimmering play of light and shadow, the finest light and shadow nuances.
Praxiteles created a new ideal of female beauty, embodying it in the image of Aphrodite, who, having taken off her clothes, is about to enter the water. Although the statue was intended for cult purposes, the image of a beautiful naked goddess was freed from solemn majesty. It captivates with its vitality, perfection of forms and proportions, and amazing harmony. The statue was extremely highly valued in ancient times.
Aphrodite of Knidos caused many repetitions in subsequent times, but none of them could compare with the original, since the sensual principle predominated in them, while Aphrodite of Knidos embodied admiration for the perfection of human beauty. Aphrodite of Knidos (before 360 BC) survived in Roman copies, the best of them are kept in the Vatican and Munich Museums, the head of Aphrodite of Knidos is in the Kaufmann collection in Berlin.
On the other hand, grammar, syntax and vocabulary lessons will not be ignored. The Divine Comedy, Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, major proponents of the fourteenth century, humanism. The main authors of the second half of the fifteenth century: Poliziano, Pulci, Magnificent, Leonardo Pontano, Sannazzaro, Boiardo. The greatest authors of the early sixteenth century: Ariosto, Machiavelli, Gicciardini; others lyrical and thriving. Satirical and burlesque poetry. The seventeenth century and its characters.
Civic and artistic renewal. Language learning: gradual knowledge, including through the analysis of correctly selected texts, morphosynthetic structures and their arrangement. Reading texts relevant to students' backgrounds, especially for the purpose of language learning. Versions from Latin and Italian exercises.
Aphrodite of Knidos
Praxiteles sometimes introduced features of everyday life and elements of genre into mythological images. The statue of “Apollo Saurocton” (third quarter of the 4th century BC, Rome, Vatican) is an image of an elegant teenage boy aiming at a lizard running along a tree trunk. This is how the traditional image of the deity is rethought, acquiring a genre-lyrical coloring.
Some of the statues of Praxiteles were skillfully painted by the painter Nicias.
The influence of Praxiteles’ art was later manifested in numerous works of park sculpture from the Hellenistic era, as well as in small plastic works, in particular, in the wonderful terracotta (fired clay) figurines from Tanagra (for example, “Aphrodite in a Shell”, Leningrad, Hermitage, or “Girl , wrapped in a cloak", late 4th century BC, Paris, Louvre). These elegant, graceful female images have retained all the charm and purity of the Greek classics. The subtle poetry inherent in the works of Praxiteles continued to live in small plastic for a long time.
If in the art of Scopas and Praxiteles there are still tangible connections with the principles of high classical art, then in the artistic culture of the last third of the 4th century. BC e. these ties weakened.
Macedonia acquired leading importance in the socio-political life of the ancient world. After the victorious campaigns of Alexander the Great and his conquest of the Greek city-states, and then the vast territories of Asia that became part of the Macedonian state, a new stage in the development of ancient society began - the period of Hellenism.
The breakdown of the old and the emergence of the new in art, and especially in sculpture, led to the demarcation of directions: classicizing, idealistic and realistic, seeking new ways of development based on the processing of the best achievements of the classics.
Language learning: completing and organizing the study of morphology and syntax, and by analyzing suitable texts. Reading an anthology of historically advantaged perspectives tailored to the experiences students have with the language. Latin versions and Italian study guides This program replaces the previous one, which is provided for completeness.
Students in all classes, except Latin and Latin, will be in short Latin compositions. A historical sketch of literature from its origins to the era of Caesar is integrated into the reading of the texts. Integrating and deepening language learning through reading texts.
Leohar. The most prominent representative of the idealizing trend was Leochares, the court master of Alexander the Great. His most famous statue is Apollo Belvedere (c. 340 BC, Rome, Vatican), executed with high professional skill, characterized by calm grandeur and cold solemnity.
Historical drawing of literature from the era of Tiberius to the 5th century AD, supplemented by readings of the texts. The reading of texts, which includes the study of literature, can be done from the original texts or from the original accompanied by a translation or, possibly, translations. Knowledge and metrical reading of the hexameter, elegiac chamber, Catullian and orasic meters of the Gabiatian senarium, limited to the texts studied.
The specific features that distinguish Greek from Italian and Latin will be illustrated as we read individual authors. The original texts of translation and translation should encourage young people to penetrate into the Greek world in its most varied and living aspects, important currents of thought and everything that is authentic in Hellenic culture. In this context, civil history, literary history and constant observation of basic morphological, syntactic and linguistic phenomena contribute to a broader meaning.
Apollo Belvedere
Lysippos.
The largest sculptor of the realistic movement was Lysippos, the last great master of the late classics. The heyday of his work dates back to the 40s and 30s. 4th century BC e., during the reign of Alexander the Great. In the art of Lysippos, as well as in the work of his great predecessors, the task of individualizing the image of a person and revealing his experiences was solved; he introduced more clearly expressed characteristics of age and occupation. What was new in Lysippos’s work was his interest in the characteristically expressive nature of man, as well as the expansion of the visual possibilities of sculpture. He also owned a huge (20 m high) bronze statue of Zeus (which has not survived to this day) and a tabletop figurine of Hercules, made for Alexander the Great.
Lysippos embodied his understanding of the image of man in the statue of a young man scraping sand from himself after a competition - “Apoxiomen” (325-300 BC, Rome, Vatican), which he presented not at the moment of tension, but in state of relaxation. The slender figure of the athlete is shown in a complex spread, as if inviting the viewer to go around the statue. The movement is freely deployed in space. The face expresses fatigue, the deep-set, shadowed eyes look into the distance.
Latin feedback is recommended throughout the course. The written examinations consist of passing from 4 to 5 in the gymnasium and from there to the secondary school, translated into Greek a simple piece of narrative prose suitable for the preparation achieved by the students. "one to another" class in high school and classical maturation will be in the Greek version in Italian of the prose writer of the prose author, preferably the penthouse or penthouse. metric reading of hexameter, elegiac chamber, iambic trimeter and basic meters of monodic melique, limited to the studied texts.
Apoxyomenes
Lysippos skillfully conveys the transition from a state of rest to action and vice versa. This is the image of Hermes resting (330-320 BC, Naples, National Museum).
The work of Lysippos was of great importance for the development of portraiture. The portraits he created of Alexander the Great reveal a deep interest in revealing the spiritual world of the hero. The most notable is the marble head of Alexander (Istanbul, Archaeological Museum), which reveals a complex and contradictory image.
In the art of the late classics, more differentiated images of people of different types and in different states appeared. A student of Lysippos made the head of the fist fighter Satyrus from Olympia (c. 330 BC, Athens, National Archaeological Museum), with merciless realistic observation conveying brute physical strength, primitiveness of spiritual life, gloomy gloominess of character. The author of the portrait of a fist fighter was not interested in assessing and condemning the ugly sides of human character, he only stated them. Thus, turning to a more specific depiction of reality in its individual manifestations, sculpture lost interest in the ideal generalized heroic image, and at the same time the special educational significance that it had in previous periods.
Nominal and pronominal morphology. Morphology of a regular verb. It is recommended to continue with a reasonable progression in the first months so that he can take advantage of the opportunities offered by the review and integration of the Latin program envisaged in the first quarter. Anthological reading of graduation texts serves as the basis for the complete practical acquisition of expressive means and structures of language. Expanding the study of vocabulary and elementary phraseology. B. - To read the anthology, you can, in addition to the traditional classics, also place texts, selected appropriately, by other attic or attic masters.
Vases and paintings
Towards the end of the classical period, the nature of vase painting changed. Patterned ornamentation occupied an increasing place in it, heroic motifs gave way to genre and lyrical ones. Painting also evolved in the same direction. According to the figurative decision, “Aphrodite Anadyomene”, a painting by the famous artist of the late 4th century, echoes Praxiteles’ Aphrodite. BC e. Apelles, who enriched the colorful palette and used light and shadow modeling more freely.
The diversity of trends in monumental painting of the late classics is vividly illustrated by the unique paintings of an unknown Greek master found in the Kazanlak tomb, in Bulgaria in the 1940s, as well as colorful mosaics in Pella, in Macedonia.
Recapitulation and integration of language learning in two grammar school classes. Homer, a book with relevant references to the Homeric language. Reading "Historical Prose Anthology". Historical design of literature from the beginning to Pindaro, conveniently integrated with the reading of translated texts or with the original text at the front.
Reading an anthology of poetic poets, including some of the most significant Hellenistic poets, accompanied by relevant language lessons, Plato, a work, or a significant selection of works. Historical drawing of ethnic literature, conveniently integrated with the reading of translated texts or with the original text at the front.
Artistic crafts
During the Late Classic period, artistic crafts continued to flourish. Vases acquired more complex shapes; sometimes craftsmen imitated expensive silver vases in clay with their complex embossing and reliefs, and resorted to multi-color painting. Metal products, silver dishes, gilded cups, etc. became widespread.
The art of late Greek classics completed a long, fruitful path of development of ancient Greek art.
Conversation exercises and collective oral composition, which students will then put into writing. Dictation lessons, interpretation and translation, literal and free, because the student reflects on the other spirit of our foreign language and ours. The readings will be from ancient and modern passages, among the most beautiful and interesting for young students. In the final class, reading the steps chosen by the "whole work" The teacher will have to constantly use a foreign language in lessons and require that the lesson be used in class. the same from students, at least last year.
The fifth century in the history of Greek sculpture of the classical period can be called a “step forward.” The development of sculpture in Ancient Greece in this period is associated with the names of such famous masters as Myron, Polyclene and Phidias. In their creations, the images become more realistic, if one can say, even “alive,” and the schematism that was characteristic of archaic sculpture decreases. But the main “heroes” remain the gods and “ideal” people.
Continuing and completing surveys already completed in lower courses, the teacher will lead the young to new travels and discoveries on non-European continents, showing travel reports on physical configuration, living conditions and civilizations, progressive adaptation and transformation and expansion of European civilization in new countries, economic , political, cultural relations, similarities and contrasts.
Civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean peoples. Greek people; main features of pre-Christian civilizations; cities and their types; colonization. Athenian hegemony, Spartan, Theban. The civilization of classical Greece: characters, expressions, value. Macedonian hegemony, empire of Alexander the Great.
Myron, who lived in the mid-5th century. BC e, known to us from drawings and Roman copies. This brilliant master had an excellent command of plasticity and anatomy, and clearly conveyed freedom of movement in his works (“Discobolus”). His work “Athena and Marsyas” is also known, which was created on the basis of the myth about these two characters. According to legend, Athena invented the flute, but while playing she noticed how ugly the expression on her face changed; in anger, she threw the instrument and cursed everyone who would play it. She was watched all the time by the forest deity Marsyas, who was afraid of the curse. The sculptor tried to show the struggle of two opposites: calm in the face of Athena and savagery in the face of Marsyas. Modern art connoisseurs still admire his work and his animal sculptures. For example, about 20 epigrams on a bronze statue from Athens have been preserved.
Republican Rome and its expansion into the Mediterranean. Empire. From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. The Middle Ages: limitations and implications. Islam and the Arab Empire: Muslim civilization, Longobards. Charlemagne and Europe of his time. Feudal organization: countryside, city, castles, abbeys and burial grounds. A sketch of the new life after the millennium and its factors Religious movements and the seven heretical crises The Crusades and the development of relations between the Mediterranean peoples The emergence of a new European papacy and empire in the struggle for political supremacy The decline of the Papacy and Empire as universalist political forces.
Polykleitos, who worked in Argos, in the second half of the 5th century. BC e, is a prominent representative of the Peloponnesian school. The sculpture of the classical period is rich in his masterpieces. He was a master of bronze sculpture and an excellent art theorist. Polykleitos preferred to portray athletes, in whom ordinary people always saw an ideal. Among his works are the famous statues of "Doryphoros" and "Diadumen". The first job is that of a strong warrior with a spear, the embodiment of calm dignity. The second is a slender young man with a competition winner's bandage on his head.
Inventions; geographical discoveries and their consequences in world life. The crisis of the Italian political balance and the war of domination in Russia. Italy during the foreign domination of the American Revolution, the Enlightenment and the Reformation movement. Napoleon.
Congress of Vienna. Contrasts and the struggle for freedom and independence of the peoples of Italy in a unitary state. Issues, conflicts and events Resistance, liberation struggle, Constitution of the Italian Republic, ideals and achievements of democracy Colonialism decline and new member states c. peace. Institutions and organizations for cooperation between peoples.
Phidias is another prominent representative of the creator of sculpture of the classical period. His name resounded brightly during the heyday of Greek classical art. His most famous sculptures were the colossal statues of Athena Parthenos and Zeus in the Olympic Temple made of wood, gold and ivory, and Athena Promachos, made of bronze and located on the square of the Acropolis of Athens. These masterpieces of art are irretrievably lost. Only descriptions and small Roman copies give us a faint idea of the magnificence of these monumental sculptures.
Athena Parthenos, a striking sculpture from the classical period, was built in the Parthenon Temple. It had a 12-meter wooden base, the body of the goddess was covered with ivory plates, and the clothes and weapons themselves were made of gold. The approximate weight of the sculpture is two thousand kilograms. Surprisingly, the gold pieces were removed and weighed again every four years, since they were the gold fund of the state. Phidias decorated the shield and pedestal with reliefs on which he depicted himself and Pericles in battle with the Amazons. For this he was accused of sacrilege and sent to prison, where he died.
The statue of Zeus is another masterpiece of sculpture from the classical period. Its height is fourteen meters. The statue depicts the supreme Greek deity seated with the goddess Nike in his hand. The statue of Zeus, according to many art historians, is the greatest creation of Phidias. It was built using the same technique as when creating the statue of Athena Parthenos. The figure was made of wood, depicted naked to the waist and covered with ivory plates, and the clothes were covered with gold sheets. Zeus sat on the throne and in his right hand he held the figure of the goddess of victory Nike, and in his left there was a rod, which was a symbol of power. The ancient Greeks perceived the statue of Zeus as another wonder of the world.
Athena Promachos (circa 460 BC), a 9-meter bronze sculpture of ancient Greece, was built right among the ruins after the Persians destroyed the Acropolis. Phidias “gives birth” to a completely different Athena - in the form of a warrior, an important and strict protector of her city. She has a powerful spear in her right hand, a shield in her left, and a helmet on her head. Athena in this image represented the military power of Athens. This sculpture of ancient Greece seemed to reign over the city, and everyone who traveled by sea along the shores could contemplate the top of the spear and the crest of the statue’s helmet sparkling in the rays of the sun, covered in gold. In addition to the sculptures of Zeus and Athena, Phidias creates bronze images of other gods using the chrysoelephantine technique, and takes part in sculpting competitions. He was also the leader of large construction works, for example, the construction of the Acropolis.