Nature conservation in Switzerland. Growth and expansion of the confederation

According to an ancient legend, when God distributed the wealth of the earth's bowels, there was not enough of it for the country in the very heart of Europe, Switzerland. To correct this injustice, God gave her high mountains, shining glaciers, stormy waterfalls, picturesque valleys, beautiful rivers and clear azure lakes. The unusually beautiful views of Switzerland attract thousands of tourists; it is like a special world - magical and bewitching, making you believe that paradise does exist. And it doesn’t matter what time of year you travel, the landscapes of Switzerland will not disappoint in any season and in any weather.

The climate in Switzerland as a whole can be called moderate, however, this is very general, because each canton, depending on its geographical location, has its own landscape and climate. The natural areas of Switzerland are diverse - from the Arctic to the tropics: mosses and lichens grow high in the mountains, the slopes are covered with coniferous and deciduous forests, and in the south of the country, on the coast of lakes, the lush southern greenery of cypresses, magnolias and palm trees pleases the eye. Switzerland attracts tourists in winter with its famous ski resorts; in summer, the mountains and passes of Switzerland are greeted with amazing landscapes, and crystal clear lakes offer beach holidays comparable in level to the resorts of the Mediterranean Sea.

Holidays in the Swiss Alps

Switzerland and mountains are two inseparable concepts, because mountains occupy more than half of the country’s territory. In Switzerland, there are three natural regions: the Jura mountain range stretches in the northwest, the Swiss Plateau in the center, and the Alps, which occupy the entire southeast of the country. According to scientific data, the Alps appeared as a result of the collision of tectonic plates in ancient times, but, amazingly, researchers claim that the Swiss Alps are still in the process of formation - their height increases every year, however, by only one millimeter. Experts believe that a powerful earthquake can cause the mountains to grow faster, and they will reach 7 thousand meters, however, this may not happen very, very soon, in about a couple of million years.

The Swiss Alps stretch for almost 200 kilometers, presenting a unique landscape of beautiful mountain passes and valleys, sloping slopes and snow-capped peaks.

Holidays in the Swiss Alps in winter include, of course, ski resorts, which are considered the best in the world. Abundance of snow, impeccable slopes, the best ski training, cozy hotels, cafes and restaurants with excellent cuisine, the highest level of service - everything here is created for an ideal holiday. Sports fans will find excellent trails for alpine and cross-country skiing, snowboarding and airboarding, sledding slopes, speed skating areas and even ice diving. Those who love more relaxing leisure activities will be offered hiking, sledding, healing at thermal springs, winter fishing, and getting to know the unique culture and traditions of Switzerland, so this is not just a vacation, but a real winter fairy tale come to life!

The Swiss Alps in summer attract, first of all, their stunning mountain panoramas, but relaxation, of course, is not limited to simple contemplation of beauty. In almost any region of the Alps, tourists are offered bicycle tours and walking routes of varying difficulty, and some of the most beautiful places in Switzerland can only be reached on foot; beginners and experienced climbers will also try their hand at the Alps. In any case, all tourist routes run among uniquely beautiful peaks and valleys with colorful villages, and in each, even the smallest, they will certainly offer accommodation with maximum comfort. By the way, all night stops take place only in special mountain shelters; you won’t be able to sit by the fire here - lighting a fire is allowed only in emergency cases to attract the attention of rescue services, and you can set up a tent camp only far from the shelters and only for the duration of the night from 8 pm to 8 a.m. The summer Alps will also greet you with their amazingly beautiful and clean lakes, some of which are suitable for diving, windsurfing or fishing.

Mount Matterhorn

The most famous of the Alpine peaks is the Matterhorn, located in the Pennine Alps on the very border of Switzerland and Italy. The peak, which has an almost regular pyramidal shape, rises far from other peaks, among plains and low hills, so nothing prevents you from admiring it from all sides, and perhaps it is this isolation that gives Mount Matterhorn so much charm. The Matterhorn is caught in the cameras of travelers much more often than other attractions. On this occasion, local residents even made a joke that for tourists on a trip to Switzerland, the main thing is that the Matterhorn appears in the background of the photo. However, the Swiss themselves could not help but appreciate the beauty of this mountain; it was not without reason that the producers of the world-famous Swiss chocolate Toblerone placed its image on the packaging of their products, and in 2004 the Matterhorn took pride of place on a commemorative gold coin worth 50 francs. So this mountain can safely be considered a symbol of Switzerland!

The Matterhorn rises to 4,478 meters above sea level; if you look closely, you can see that the mountain has two peaks, located at a distance of about a hundred meters from each other. One of them, located in the east of the ridge, is called the Swiss peak, and the western one, which is only one meter lower than its “neighbor”, is called the Italian peak, but they are called that not at all according to their countries - both are located on the very border, just to the east The first ascent was made from the territory of Switzerland, to the west - from Italy. By the way, Matterhon with its steep cliffs is one of the most extreme destinations for climbers, so the mountain remained inaccessible for a long time, and only in 1865 a group of professional climbers managed to conquer the peak. But no matter how harsh and dangerous the Matterhorn is, it invariably attracts climbers in any season.

Often, to admire the Matterhorn in its full glory, they climb the nearby Gornergrat mountain - a journey to a height of more than three thousand meters can be covered on foot or on a panoramic train that can overcome steep climbs. It will take you to the very top, and along the way you will see amazing views of forests and picturesque waterfalls.

At the foot of the Matterhorn there are famous resorts: on the Italian side - Breuil-Cervinia, and on the Swiss side - Zermatt, which is one of the ten best resorts in the Alps in terms of the quality of snow cover and ski slopes. In the summer, Zermatt invites fans of hiking, climbers and simply lovers of a relaxing holiday and the landscapes of Switzerland. You can get to Zermatt by train from the major cities of Switzerland, Milan, Stuttgart and Munich. By car you can get to the Tasch resort, and from there you can take an electric taxi to Zermatt or take an electric bus.

Mount Pilatus in Switzerland

In central Switzerland, southeast of the city of Lucerne, Mount Pilatus rises - no less famous than the Matterhorn, but if the latter became famous thanks to its image on chocolate, then Pilatus gained fame because of the legends associated with it. According to one version, the name of the mountain is translated as “wearing a hat” - its peak is tightly shrouded in clouds, it seems as if it is actually wearing a snow-white headdress. But a more common version explains the name of the peak after Pontius Pilate, the procurator who condemned Jesus Christ to execution. Tradition says that Pilate, tormented by remorse, committed suicide, and then his body was thrown into the Tiber, but the river did not accept the sinner and carried the remains to the shore. The same thing happened when trying to drown the body of a suicide in the Rhone and Lake Geneva, after which he was taken to a remote corner of the Alps and thrown into a deep reservoir at the foot of a high mountain. After this, the peak began to be called Pilatus, and local residents believed that the restless soul of the procurator was wandering along the mountain paths, and woe to anyone who met him. And so Pontius Pilate constantly brought troubles - villages in the vicinity of the mountain suffered from rockfalls, mudflows, floods and hurricanes. This continued for a long time, until one theological student, who was fond of black magic, achieved that the soul of the procurator began to appear only once a year, but for several more centuries the authorities, believing the legend, forbade anyone to climb the mountain. And in the Middle Ages, it was believed that winged dragons lived here, guarding palaces with untold riches and kidnapping beautiful girls.

Fortunately, the times when people were afraid to visit Pilatus have long gone into oblivion, because this mountain is rightfully considered one of the most beautiful places in Switzerland, and tourists with great pleasure climb to its top to enjoy the grandeur of the mountain landscapes, wonderful clean air and entertainment that will take your breath away.

The height of Pilatus is 2128 meters above sea level. There are three ways to get to the top: on foot (the climb will take about four hours), using the cable car from the town of Kriens or by train from the town of Alpnachstadt. This train, by the way, is the steepest in the whole world - the angle of inclination of the railway in some places reaches 48°, and only special gears and rails allow it to overcome such a rise.

At the top of Pilatus, tourists, in addition to breathtaking views, will find a wide variety of leisure options. The winter Pilatus and Snow&Fun park will give you the most impressions - along four tracks of different lengths you can ride on sleds, snow scooters, “bagels” and other snow-entertaining types of transport. From a height of just under one and a half thousand meters, you can ride on a toboggan - a useless sleigh of the Indians of North America, or test your own courage with the help of the Powerfan attraction, where you will have to “fall” from a height of about 20 meters and only at the very ground will the daredevil be caught by a thin rope. You should definitely take the Dragon Pass route - the road will go through caves and grottoes, where the walls are painted with illustrations of legends about dragons - they were drawn by local artist Hans Erni at the beginning of the 20th century. And, of course, restaurants with traditional Swiss cuisine and souvenir shops with cute little things will complement the impression of being on Mount Pilatus - one of the best and most mysterious places in Switzerland.

Lake Geneva

Switzerland is often called the “country of mountains and lakes”; the mountains here really occupy a significant territory, and the lakes of Switzerland, of which there are more than one and a half thousand, are distinguished by their extraordinary beauty and crystal clear water. The largest lake in the Swiss Alps and the second largest freshwater body of water in Central Europe is Lake Geneva, lying in the floodplain of the Rhone River, often called Leman by locals.

Lake Geneva, even in photographs, amazes with its magnificence, let alone when you see it in person! It simply fascinates with its pristine beauty and the unusually deep and pure color of the water; it is often compared to a mirror - the Alps shelter it so reliably from the wind that the surface of the water is almost always unshakable, and in it, as if in a mirror, mountain peaks, vineyards, tall fir trees, houses and medieval castles on the slopes.

The crescent-shaped Swiss lake is located on the border with France, or rather, the border runs right in the middle of the reservoir. Along the northern coast, which belongs to Switzerland, there are numerous resort towns, which are called the Swiss Riviera for their luxury and respectability. Lake Geneva is protected from the cold northern winds by the Alpine mountains, so it has a pleasant mild climate, and the coast is surrounded by the greenery of subtropical plants. Beach holidays in Switzerland are truly unique - only here you can sunbathe on the beach while admiring the snow-capped mountain peaks. However, the swimming season here is quite short - the water warms up very slowly and only becomes warm in July-August. However, a variety of water sports and cruises are available for tourists, as well as horse riding, cycling, walking, golf, mountaineering, paragliding and hot air ballooning.

One of the most impressive natural attractions of Switzerland is the Rhine Falls, located in the canton of Schaffhausen near the small town of Neuhausen am Rheinfall. Despite the fact that the height of the Rhine Falls is only 23 meters (about the size of a seven-story building), it is considered the largest in Europe, because it has no equal in terms of the volume of water falling from the rocks - in winter, 250 cubic meters fall down every second, in summer, During the period of rapid melting of mountain glaciers, up to 700 cubic meters fall from the cliff.

According to scientists' research, this waterfall is very ancient and began to form about 500 thousand years ago during the Ice Age, when huge masses of ice easily changed the topography and sharply turned river beds. The Rhine Falls finally acquired their appearance about 15 thousand years ago - this is how we can see it today.

The spectacle of the Rhine Falls is not just impressive, it shakes to the core - the width of the threshold reaches 150 meters, huge streams of water fall down with noise and roar, and, swirling with snow-white foam, disintegrate into millions of splashes, shimmering like a rainbow in the sun.

The best way to enjoy the unusually beautiful and menacing spectacle is from observation platforms. One of them departs from the shore and extends above the river, very close to the place where the waterfall falls; it seems that the water colossus is moving straight towards you and the wildly roaring stream is about to pick you up and carry you away in an unknown direction. Another site is located on a high rock, rising like an island in the middle of the river; a small ship sailing from both banks will take you here. From this site, the Rhine Falls can be seen from above; from here it will not seem so formidable, but will fascinate you for a long time with its stunning view.

It is easy to get to the Rhine Falls from Zurich through the cities of Winterthur, Schaffhausen, Newhausen or Bülach; this can be done either by car or by public transport - train or bus, depending on the chosen route.

Swiss national park

For those who want to see all the truly alpine landscapes at once, the ideal place is the Swiss National Park, located in the canton of Grisons in the Engadin Valley. An area of 172 square kilometers covers harsh bare rocks, densely pine-forested slopes and alpine and subalpine meadows dotted with fragrant flowers, home to chamois, mountain goats, deer, elk, wolves, brown bears, foxes, lynxes, golden eagles and many other representatives of the animal. peace.

Swiss National Park is the oldest national park in Europe and the only one in Switzerland. The history of its creation is very interesting. By the beginning of the twentieth century, this territory was completely developed by man, and, as usual, in a very barbaric way - forests were mercilessly cut down, scarce natural resources were thoughtlessly used. In 1914, it was decided to completely stop any economic activity here and monitor how capable nature is of self-healing. And the result was not long in coming - nature, freed from human intervention, came into its own - dense forests rustled on the slopes again, meadows were covered with flowers, and animals and birds found shelter.

Today, the Swiss National Park continues to develop naturally and live a quiet, peaceful life, disturbed only by tourists, while visiting rules are very strict. Only walking is allowed here, it is forbidden to leave the paved paths, light fires, set up camps, leave any traces of your presence, fishing and hunting, collecting herbs and flowers are prohibited, even for loud noises you can be fined. If you want to spend more time in the national park (it’s still not possible to walk around it in one day - the total length of the trails is 80 kilometers), then you can stay overnight at the Il Fuorn hotel or the Chamana Cluozza hut, where guests will be provided with comfortable rooms and will be pampered with delicious national cuisine.

Entrance to the park is free, and there are also free parking lots nearby. The best time to visit the park is considered to be the warm season; in winter it is also open, but only short walks are provided along some paths cleared of snow. But just in winter, in the nearby village of Zernez, where the information office of the national park is located, winter sports competitions, festivals and marathons, farmers' markets are held, and you can go on an entertaining tour to the unusual 17th-century village of Guarda.

The easiest way to get to the Swiss National Park is from Zurich by train to Zernez, and then take a bus to the park, or by car, the journey takes about 2.5-3 hours.

Verzasca River

Probably, the definition of “the most” fits many places in Switzerland: the best ski resorts in Switzerland, the most picturesque lakes, the most beautiful mountains and the cleanest rivers are also located in Switzerland, and of them the most transparent in the world is Verzasca. It originates on the glaciers of a mountain 2864 meters high and carries its waters to Lake Maggiore, located between Italy and Switzerland. The Verzasca path lies through the picturesque valleys of the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino, the length of the river is very short - only 30 kilometers, but this entire distance is simply replete with amazing landscapes - Verzasca runs between mountain slopes, dressed in the lush greenery of chestnut forests and vineyards, and along the banks there are ancient stone buildings Swiss villages, which only adds to the charm of the amazing views. The depth of Verzasca in some places reaches 15 meters, the water in it changes color from bright blue to emerald green and is so transparent that the bottom, strewn with multi-colored stones, is visible to the smallest detail.

Many, having seen the purest Verzasca, feel the desire to take a dip, however, the water in it is icy even in the hottest weather, its temperature does not exceed 10 degrees, and due to strong undercurrents it is quite dangerous, as the signs on its banks warn about. But still, there are extreme sports enthusiasts who don’t mind the cold, and more heat-loving tourists have the opportunity to swim - along the riverbed there are natural depressions where the water has time to warm up to an acceptable temperature. Verzasca is especially popular among divers, who are certainly not deterred by the icy water, because from the bottom they take stunning photographs; the most spectacular photographs are from the depths, where, through the crystal clear water, the shores and the sky with running clouds are visible. The only thing that divers will not be able to see and capture is the underwater world of Verzasca, since, despite the cleanest water, there is a complete absence of flora and fauna. For a long time it was believed that the reason for this was the increased acidity of the water, but studies conducted in 2009 showed that the pH composition of the water is the most common, but why there is no flora and fauna in the river remains a mystery.

Among the land attractions of Verzasca, charming Swiss villages are noted, where the age of houses made of layered gneiss stone reaches several hundred years; a stone arched bridge, built in the 17th century and called Roman either because of its authorship by the Italians, or because of the similarity of architecture, and a gigantic stone dam 220 meters high. It gained worldwide fame thanks to the filming of one of the Bond films, GoldenEye, where Pete Brosnan spectacularly jumps into the water from a great height. By the way, anyone can repeat Bond's mind-blowing stunt - there is a bungee jumping area on the dam - if you're brave enough, an unforgettable experience is guaranteed!

The area around the city of Locarno is called the most beautiful place on the Verzaschi River; you can get to it by train from Zurich, Basel or Lucerne. By car, the route will be along the A2 highway to Magadino airport, and then you need to turn onto the A13 highway.

Lauterbrunnen Valley

Experienced travelers call the Lauterbrunnen Valley one of the most beautiful and amazing in the whole earth - in fact, it is a deep crevice located between steep kilometer-long cliffs, the valley stretches eight kilometers in length, and it is no more than a kilometer wide. From here you can see three majestic peaks - Jungfrau, Mönch and Eiger (translated as Virgin, Monk and Ogre), landscapes of a mountain valley, but the main thing here is the numerous waterfalls. The name Lauterbrunnen itself translates as “many springs.” There are 72 waterfalls in the valley, stunning in their beauty.

The journey to the waterfalls begins from a picturesque village that bears the same name as the valley - Lauterbrunnen. It is here that you can book sightseeing tours or guided walking tours.

The most famous and impressive waterfalls are Staubbach and Trümmelbach. Staubbach amazes with its power and natural strength - streams of melt water fall from 300-meter cliffs; due to the great height, the water, reaching the ground, breaks on the stones and turns into the smallest water dust, reminiscent of fog or a cloud. The Trummelbach Falls are the only ones in Europe located deep in the rocks and accessible to the public. Over thousands of years, melt waters descending from the peaks have washed spiral depressions in the stone, through which thundering streams, overcoming a dozen cascades, descend into the valley. You can get to the waterfall by underground funicular, and then tourists, following galleries and bridges, descend to the foot of the mountain, admiring the incredibly beautiful spectacle of running water.

The most beautiful places in Switzerland can be seen from the top of the Schilthorn, which can be reached using a ski lift. There, at the top, in addition to the observation deck, which offers a panorama of eternal glaciers and mountain peaks, there is a revolving restaurant “Piz Gloria”, where the filming of the film about the famous agent 007 “On Her Majesty’s Secret Service” took place.

Another attraction of Lauterbrunnen is the Jungfrauban railway - its final station is located at an altitude of 3545 meters above sea level and is the highest railway station in the whole world and is called the “Top of Europe”.

You can get to Lauterbrunnen by car or train from Zurich to Interlaken, from where a train runs to the valley.

The last ten kilometers of the Jungfrauban railway go through a tunnel, from where the train emerges into the dazzling whiteness of another natural landmark of Switzerland - the largest glacier in the Alps, called Aletsch. Its length is approximately 25 kilometers, area is about 120 square kilometers. Glaciers are formed from compacted layers of snow that turn into ice under their own weight. Aletsch consists of three glaciers with an average thickness of about one hundred meters, the branches of the glacier, converging at Concordia, reach a maximum thickness of about 1 thousand meters, here the glacier turns into a frozen river one and a half kilometers wide. The apparent silence and silence of Aletsch are deceptive - it lives and moves, sliding at a speed of 200 meters per year to the southeast, and at an altitude of about 1500 meters above sea level, the Aletsch turns into the Massa River, which flows into the Rhone.

Local residents have always treated Aletsch with respect and even fear; if he was mentioned in legends, they were certainly called the “white giant”, and this is not surprising - at night, sounds similar to groans and the ringing of steel swords are clearly heard from the direction of the glacier. Even skeptics find it difficult to believe that they are created by the movement of a huge mass of ice, and therefore there are many tales about ghosts and human souls languishing under the thickness of ice.

Despite the outward coldness and inaccessibility of Aletsch, tourists with great pleasure go to see the unique glacier frozen in a bizarrely curved canyon-gorge, overgrown with relict forest; the Big Aletsch branch, reminiscent of an ice-bound river or a man-made winter road, is especially interesting. Aletsch looks very unusual in the summer, when the slopes of the canyon are covered with green grass and flowers, and a snowy river lies below your feet in icy silence.

Since 2001, Aletsch has been under the protection of UNESCO, and is also included in the list of candidates for the title of “Seven Wonders of Nature”.

Caves of Saint Beatus

In the canton of Bern, near the town of Interlaken on the north-eastern shore of Lake Thun, tourists are treated to a fascinating journey into the depths of the rocks - to the caves of St. Beatus. As the legend says, a long time ago, wealthy parents sent their son Suetonius to study in Rome, but the apostle Peter led him astray from the path of science, and the young man plunged headlong into religion, replacing hot Italy with the mountains of Switzerland. Suetonius took a new name for himself - Beatus and settled in a cave on Lake Thun, but first he had to fight the terrible fire-breathing monsters that lived in the mountain grottoes. For his numerous good deeds, local residents began to venerate him as a saint, and over time the caves acquired the name of Saint Beatus.

Since legends are associated with dragons, everything here is reminiscent of mythical creatures - right at the entrance and in the cave there are figures of fire-breathing monsters, in underground lakes you can sail on a boat in the form of a dragon, and nature itself seems to support the legend - stone blocks in some places are stacked like this in a bizarre way that, in fact, resembles the terrible toothy jaws of a monster.

Caves and passages located at a depth of 500 meters merge into mysterious labyrinths, overgrown with stalactites and stalagmites more than 40 thousand years old, underground rivers flow here and even small waterfalls rustle. In one of the grottoes you can meet the “owner” - St. Beatus himself, and those interested in science can look into the Mineral Museum.

Not far from the caves there is a restaurant that serves delicious dishes prepared according to ancient recipes, and on its roof you can admire the picturesque landscapes of Switzerland from observation platforms.

In Switzerland, three natural regions are distinguishable: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

The Jura Mountains separate Switzerland and France, stretching from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen.

The Swiss plateau formed at the site of the trough between the Jura and the Alps. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in the wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Most of the country's population lives here, large cities and industrial centers are located here.

Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. The picturesque nature of the high Alps attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Peak Dufour (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m) ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary the Are. The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable significance. On the Rhine, navigation is maintained only as far as Basel.

The large and small lakes of Switzerland are very picturesque. The largest and most famous is Lake Geneva. No less famous is Lake Firvaldstätt, formed from seven reservoirs. Lake Brienz and Lake Thun are separated by the muddy delta of the Lucine River.

In northeastern Switzerland belongs part of Lake Constance. Most of the lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed in an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains onto the Swiss plateau.

Switzerland has pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau – moderately warm, in the mountains – cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average throughout the year from +10 to +16° C; in summer they rise to +27° C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest month is January.

The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snow. In winter, temperatures drop below 0°C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern shore of Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, some of which belong to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in Northern Italy, since the mountains protect against the invasion of cold northern winds.

In Switzerland there are frequent sharp strong winds accompanied by rain and snowfall. In spring, summer and autumn, fohns predominate - warm, dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. As currents of moist air from the Mediterranean Sea rise up the slopes of the Alps and then descend to the Swiss plateau, precipitation falls on the southern slopes almost twice as much as on the northern ones.

The Swiss plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, with pine mixed in in some places. On the southern slope of the Alps the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the mountain slopes, coniferous forests grow, forming a transition zone between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). There are many bright colors in the mountains. Crocuses and daffodils bloom in spring, rhododendrons, saxifrages, gentians and edelweiss bloom in summer.

The Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, is home to roe deer and chamois, and less commonly, alpine ibex and fox; Ptarmigan and several species of birds of prey are also found.

Switzerland is a country in Central Europe. Tradition says: when God distributed the riches of the subsoil throughout the Earth, He did not have enough for a tiny country in the heart of Europe. To correct such injustice, He clothed this small country with wondrous beauty: He gave mountains like castles in the sky, sparkling white glaciers, singing waterfalls, lakes of crystal purity, bright fragrant valleys. The country borders Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Italy and France. The headwaters of major rivers in Europe begin on the territory of Switzerland: the Rhine, Rhone, Ticino, Are, etc. Approximately 60% of the territory is occupied by mountains with mountain lakes and alpine meadows. There are a total of 1,484 lakes in the country. 24% of the territory is covered by forests

Swiss Confederation. According to the government structure, it is a federal republic. The area of the country is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. In the north it borders with Germany, in the west with France, in the south with Italy, and in the east with Austria and Liechtenstein. The northern border is partly along Lake Constance and the Rhine, which begins in the center of the Swiss Alps and forms part of the eastern border. The western border runs along the Jura Mountains, the southern - along the Italian Alps and Lake Geneva. The capital of Switzerland is Bern.

Switzerland. The capital is Bern. Population - 7450 thousand people (2004). Population density: 172 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 61%, rural - 39% (1996). Area - 41.3 thousand square meters. km. The highest point is Peak Dufour (4634 m above sea level). The lowest point is 192 m above sea level. National languages: German, French, Italian, Romansh. The main religions are Catholicism, Protestantism. Administrative division: 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons. Currency: Swiss franc = 100 rappenams (centimes). National holiday: Founding Day of the Confederation (“Rütli oath”) - August 1. National anthem: "Swiss Psalm".

NATURE

Terrain. In Switzerland, three natural regions are distinguishable: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

The Jura Mountains, separating Switzerland and France, stretch from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. They alternate between mountain folds with a predominance of limestone and valleys; The folds are cut in places by small rivers, forming valleys with steep slopes (cluses). Agriculture is possible only in the valleys; The gentle slopes of the mountains are covered with forests or used as pastures.

The Swiss plateau was formed at the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial sediments in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in the wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. The majority of the country's population is concentrated here, large cities and industrial centers are located. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in this area.

Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. These high, rugged, snow-capped mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The wide bottom of the main valleys is used for fields and arable land. The area is sparsely populated. The Alps serve as the main source of income, as the picturesque nature of the highlands attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Peak Dufour (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m) ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Water resources. Most of Switzerland is watered by the Rhine and its tributary the Are (the most important of its tributaries are the Reuss and the Limmat). The southwestern regions belong to the Rhone drainage basin, the southern ones to the Ticino basin and the southeastern ones to the river basin. Inn (tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable significance. On the Rhine, navigation is maintained only as far as Basel.

Switzerland is famous for its lakes, the most picturesque of which are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Firwaldstätt, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains onto the Swiss plateau. South of the Alpine axis in the canton of Ticino are lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Climate. Switzerland has pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau - moderately warm, in the mountains - cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average throughout the year from 10 to 16°C; in summer they rise to 27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest is January.

The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snow. The snow line rises to 2700 m on the western slopes and to 3200 m on the eastern ones. In winter, temperatures drop below 0°C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern shore of Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, some of which belong to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in Northern Italy, since the mountains protect against the invasion of cold northern winds (bizet). In January-February, when high pressure prevails over the Alps, clear, cold weather sets in, favorable for winter sports. The southern slopes receive a lot of solar heat at this time.

In Switzerland there are frequent sharp strong winds accompanied by rain and snowfall. Predominates in spring, summer and autumn Föhns are warm, dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. As currents of moist air from the Mediterranean Sea rise up the slopes of the Alps and then descend to the Swiss plateau, precipitation falls on the southern slopes almost twice as much as on the northern ones. The average annual precipitation in Basel (277 m above sea level) is 810 mm, in Lausanne (375 m) on the northern shore of Lake Geneva - 1040 mm, and in Davos (1580 m) in the southeast of the country - 970 mm.

Flora and fauna. The Swiss plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, with pine mixed in in some places. On the southern slope of the Alps the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the mountain slopes, coniferous forests grow, forming a transition zone between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). There are many bright colors in the mountains. Crocuses and daffodils bloom in spring, rhododendrons, saxifrages, gentians and edelweiss bloom in summer.

The fauna has been strongly influenced by human economic activity. While snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tier of the mountains as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. The Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, is home to roe deer and chamois, and less commonly, alpine ibex and fox; Ptarmigan and several species of birds of prey are also found.

The Swiss Confederation is a state in Central Europe. The government system is a federal republic. The area of the country is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. In the north it borders with Germany, in the west with France, in the south with Italy, and in the east with Austria and Liechtenstein. The northern border is partly along Lake Constance and the Rhine, which begins in the center of the Swiss Alps and forms part of the eastern border. The western border runs along the Jura Mountains, the southern border along the Italian Alps and Lake Geneva. The capital of Switzerland is Bern.

In Switzerland, three natural regions are distinguishable: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

Switzerland and France, stretching from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. The Swiss plateau was formed at the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial deposits in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. Most of the country's population is concentrated here, large cities and industrial centers are located. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in this area.

Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. Mountains of Switzerland high, rugged, snow-covered mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The highest peaks are Peak Dufour (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Climate of Switzerland

Switzerland belongs to the temperate continental climate region. But, speaking about the climate of this country, it should be borne in mind that about 60% of its territory is occupied by mountains, so here you can get from winter to summer in two hours. The Alps are a kind of barrier that prevents the flow of cold Arctic masses to the south, and warm subtropical masses to the north. In the northern cantons, winter is mild and lasts about 3 months: from December to February. At this time, the minimum temperature is -1...-4, maximum +2...+5 degrees. In summer (from June to August) at night it is usually +11...+13 degrees, during the daytime the air warms up to +22...+25 degrees. There is quite a lot of precipitation throughout the year. Their maximum occurs in the summer (up to 140 mm per month), the minimum from January to March (slightly more than 60 mm per month).

In the south, winter temperatures are almost the same, and summer temperatures are higher. The average minimum temperature is +13...+16, the average maximum +26...+28. There is even more precipitation in this area. From March to November, more than 100 mm of precipitation falls per month, and from June to August this amount approaches 200 mm. The least precipitation falls in January and February (about 60 mm).

Swiss statistics
(as of 2012)

The weather in the mountains depends on the altitude of the area. In the highlands it is snowy in winter. The temperature most of the year (from October to May) is negative both at night and during the day. In the coldest months (January and February), at night the temperature drops to -10...-15, during the day - to -5...-10. It is warmest in July and August (2...7 degrees at night, 5...10 degrees during the day). The maximum snow depth is usually observed in early April. At an altitude of 700 meters it lasts 3 months, 1000 meters - 4.5 months, 2500 meters - 10.5 months.

Water system of Switzerland

Most of Switzerland is traversed by the Rhine and its tributary, the Aare. The southwestern regions belong to the Rhone drainage basin, the southern ones to the Ticino basin and the southeastern ones to the river basin. Inn (tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable significance. On the Rhine, navigation is maintained only as far as Basel.

There are many lakes, the most picturesque of which are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Firwaldstätt, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Bil in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains onto the Swiss plateau. South of the Alpine axis in the canton of Ticino are lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Flora of Switzerland

About 1/4 of the country's territory is covered with forests. The composition of forests depends on the altitude above sea level. In the area of the Swiss Plateau, up to an altitude of 800 m, broad-leaved forests of oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, and linden predominate. Above 1000 m, the broad-leaved species that remain are mainly beech; spruces, pines, and firs appear. And starting from an altitude of 1800 m, the main place is occupied by coniferous forests of spruce, fir, pine and larch. At the highest altitudes (up to 2800 m) there are subalpine and alpine meadows, thickets of rhododendron, azalea, and juniper.

The Swiss plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, with pine mixed in in some places. On the southern slope of the Alps the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the mountain slopes, coniferous forests grow, forming a transition zone between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). Crocuses and daffodils are typical for alpine flowers in spring, and rhododendrons, saxifrage, gentians and edelweiss in summer.

Wildlife of Switzerland

The fauna is greatly depleted. While snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tier of the mountains as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. The Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, is home to roe deer and chamois, and less commonly, alpine ibex and fox; Ptarmigan and several species of birds of prey are also found. There are numerous reserves and sanctuaries.

In the mountains there are fox, hare, chamois, marten, alpine marmot, and birds - capercaillie, thrush, swift, and snow finch. Along the shores of the lakes you can find seagulls, and in the lakes you can find trout, char, whitefish, and grayling.

Terrain.

In Switzerland, three natural regions are distinguishable: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

The Swiss plateau was formed at the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial sediments in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in the wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Most of the country's population is concentrated here, large cities and industrial centers are located. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in this area.

Water resources.

Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary the Are (the most important of its tributaries are the Reuss and the Limmat). The southwestern regions belong to the Rhone drainage basin, the southern ones to the Ticino basin and the southeastern ones to the river basin. Inn (tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable significance. On the Rhine, navigation is maintained only as far as Basel.

Climate.

Switzerland has pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau – moderately warm, in the mountains – cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average throughout the year from 10 to 16°C; in summer they rise to 27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest month is January.

In Switzerland there are frequent sharp strong winds accompanied by rain and snowfall. Predominates in spring, summer and autumn Föhns are warm, dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. As currents of moist air from the Mediterranean Sea rise up the slopes of the Alps and then descend to the Swiss plateau, precipitation falls on the southern slopes almost twice as much as on the northern ones. The average annual precipitation in Basel (277 m above sea level) is 810 mm, in Lausanne (375 m) on the northern shore of Lake Geneva is 1040 mm, and in Davos (1580 m) in the southeast of the country is 970 mm.

Flora and fauna.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

The Swiss form a cohesive national community, although the population consists of ethnic groups speaking different languages (German, French, Italian and Romansh) and often differing in religion. However, mutual tolerance and goodwill allow them to live and work in the same country. A typical Swiss national image has emerged - a short, stocky brown-haired or blond man with brown or gray eyes, who has a reputation as an enterprising, hard-working person with business acumen. Many Swiss occupy key positions in the economies of other countries. There are many foreigners living in Switzerland. In 1997, foreign workers and other foreigners made up 19.4% of the country's population. Most unskilled work in Switzerland is performed by foreign workers, mainly from Italy and other countries in Southern and Eastern Europe.

Languages.

The official languages of Switzerland are German, French and Italian. The Romansh language, derived from Latin and also having national status, is spoken by approximately 1% of the country's population. The most common language is German: its local dialect, Alemannic (Schwitzerdütsch), is used by 73% of Swiss citizens and 64% of the country's population. French is spoken by approx. 19% of the population, mainly in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Friborg and Valais. Speaks Italian approx. 4% are Swiss citizens (mainly in the canton of Ticino), and including foreign workers - 8% of the country's population. The Romansh language is spoken only in the mountainous canton of Graubünden.

Religion.

At the end of the 1990s, 46% of the Swiss population were Catholics, 40% were Protestants. The proportion of Protestants declined after World War II due to the influx of foreign workers, mostly Catholics. As a result of a national referendum in 1973, two articles of the constitution were repealed, prohibiting the activities of the Jesuit order and the formation of religious orders.

Confessional differences in Switzerland do not always coincide with linguistic boundaries. Among the Protestants one can find both French-speaking Calvinists and German-speaking followers of Zwingli. The centers of German-speaking Protestantism are Zurich, Bern and Appenzell. The majority of French-speaking Protestants live in the canton of Geneva and the neighboring cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel. Catholics predominate in central Switzerland around the city of Lucerne, much of the French-speaking cantons of Friborg and Valais, and the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. There are small Jewish communities in Zurich, Basel and Geneva.

Population.

In 2004, the population of Switzerland was 7450 thousand. people and was concentrated mainly in lowland areas. Large industrial centers - Zurich, Basel and Geneva - have the highest population density. The largest cities in the country (population in thousands in 1997): Zurich (339), Geneva (173), Basel (171), Bern (124), Lausanne (114), Winterthur (87), St. Gallen (71) and Lucerne (58).

In July 2011, the population was 7,639,961, population growth - 0.21% data for 2011), infant mortality - 4.08 deaths / per 1,000 births.

STATE AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE

Federalism and democracy.

The basic principles of the Swiss constitution of 1874 are federalism and democracy. Article 3 of the constitution guarantees the 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons into which Switzerland is divided all rights of self-government, with the exception of those that are the prerogative of the federal government. These include declaring war and concluding peace, signing international treaties and joining alliances, training, material support and leadership of the armed forces, and regulation of foreign trade. The federal government and cantonal authorities have the right to impose taxes. In addition, the federal government exercises control over communications, higher education, and labor.

The adoption of the principle of federalism played a significant role in uniting the very diverse cantonal states into the first all-Swiss union state in 1848. Over time, the federal government began to more actively influence all aspects of life in the country. Nevertheless, the Swiss still feel a strong attachment to their native cantons and their traditions.

Until 1971, Switzerland was one of the few countries in the world where women did not have the right to vote on a national level. In February 1971, the male electorate approved a constitutional amendment giving the country's women the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. At the cantonal level, women's enfranchisement was delayed: in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, women finally gained the right to vote only in 1991.

The Swiss constitution also includes the mandatory holding of referendums on all amendments to the constitution, popular initiatives to put forward such amendments, and legislative referendums on certain laws and treaties. The same rights, often in conjunction with legislative initiative, apply at the cantonal and local levels. In addition, some cantons retained direct democracy in the form of a general assembly of residents (Landsgemeinde): a system of direct participation of all voters of a canton or locality in the approval of certain laws and the election of officials. Following a referendum held in March 1991, the voting age for federal elections was lowered from 20 to 18 years.

Political system.

The main organs of the Swiss Confederation are the Federal Council, the Federal Assembly and the Federal Court. The executive body is a federal council of seven members elected by parliament for a term of four years. The only formal limitation on the composition of this body is that only one deputy can be elected from each canton. However, in fact, the composition of the council is strictly limited by tradition: for example, the main geographical regions of the country and two of the language groups (French- and Italian-speaking) must be represented in it. Since 1959, the composition of the council has wherever possible reflected the influence of the main political parties. Each year, one of the council members is elected President of Switzerland, but this position is not vested with special powers.

Switzerland's legislative body, the Federal Assembly, consists of two chambers: the Cantonal Council, to which two representatives are elected from each canton and one from each half-canton, and the National Council of 200 deputies, elected in proportion to the population of the cantons. The Assembly is elected for a term of four years. It has normal legislative powers, but some laws must be approved by popular referendum.

The Swiss Federal Court is located in Lausanne, the other main government bodies are in Bern. The Federal Court serves as the country's supreme court, although it cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional. There are no lower federal courts, since the cantonal courts are responsible for applying federal laws at lower levels. A federal court consists of 26–28 judges and 11–13 jurors, who sit in separate chambers depending on the nature of the case. Members of the court are elected by the federal assembly for a term of six years.

At the cantonal level, executive power is exercised by a state or government council of 5 to 11 members headed by a president (Landmann). Council members are elected by the population of the cantons for a term of 4 years (except Friborg, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden and Appenzell-Innerrhoden) and in some small cantons they work on a voluntary basis. Most cantons have a single legislative body - a large council, a land council, or a cantonal council, also elected for a term of four years. The legal authorities of the canton are represented by courts of two or three levels, depending on the size of the canton. Most of the local peculiarities of Swiss justice were eliminated with the introduction of a single national code of civil, commercial and criminal law in 1942.

Political parties.

Switzerland has a multi-party system. On the right wing is the Christian Democratic People's Party (formerly the Conservative Social Christian or Conservative Catholic). It sees its main task as defending the teachings and institutions of the Roman Catholic Church and defending the rights of the cantons. On the left flank is occupied by the Social Democratic (or Socialist) Party, which advocates broad social reforms, including greater state participation in the country's economic life, but while maintaining a partnership between the state and private enterprise. At the center of the political spectrum is the Swiss Radical Democratic Party. She was truly radical by 19th century standards when she determined the country's policies. In modern conditions, this party has become relatively conservative.

Each of the three parties holds about a fifth of all seats on the national council. This balance of power persists from election to election, which provides Switzerland with political harmony and stability. Since 1959, each of these parties has two of the seven seats in the Federal Council, and the remaining seat is occupied by a representative of the largest of the other parties - the Swiss People's Party (formerly the Party of Peasants, Craftsmen and Burghers). Other small parties include the Greens, Union of Independents, Liberal Party and Freedom Party (formerly the Motorists Party). The latter, formed in 1985, protects the rights of car drivers and advocates restricting immigration.

Armed forces

Switzerland is based on a national militia system. Military service is universal and compulsory for all men aged 20 to 50, with periodic training. In the mid-1990s, in the event of full mobilization, the Swiss army would have numbered 625 thousand people. The country's air force consists of 250 combat units. There are no soldiers among the professional military personnel: there are 1,600 officers and sergeants serving as instructors.

Switzerland as an international center.

Switzerland adheres to a traditional policy of neutrality and therefore does not join the UN. However, it takes part in the work of all specialized UN organizations; Geneva is home to the headquarters of the World Trade Organization, the International Labor Organization, the World Health Organization, the International Telecommunications Union, the World Meteorological Organization and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Other organizations with a main seat in Switzerland are the World Council of Churches and the International Red Cross, founded by the Swiss Henri Dunant.

ECONOMY

General characteristics.

Switzerland is poor in natural resources, apart from hydropower. Nevertheless, it is a prosperous country, in many respects the richest in Europe, primarily due to the high development of the manufacturing and service industries (tourism is especially important). During the period 1950–1990, the economy grew steadily, unemployment was kept low, inflation was contained by the Swiss National Bank, and business downturns were short-lived. The economic downturn that hit most European countries in the early 1990s also affected Switzerland: unemployment reached its highest level since 1939 and inflation rates increased. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the country remained very high. In 1997, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Switzerland was estimated nominally at 365 billion Swiss francs, in reality - at 316 billion. In per capita terms - 51.4 thousand Swiss francs (nominally) and 44.5 thousand (real).

Labor resources.

In 1996, approximately 28% of the working population of Switzerland (in 1996 it was estimated at 3.8 million people) were employed in industry, 5% in agriculture and forestry and 6% in the service sector. Of these latter, approx. 23% worked in hotels, restaurants, wholesale and retail trade, approx. 11% – in banking and credit, insurance and entrepreneurship, approx. 6% in the transport and communications system. The unemployment rate in Switzerland in 1997 was 5.2%. In the same year, there were 936 thousand foreign workers who had a temporary residence permit in the country, of whom 30% were Italians and 15% Yugoslavs. In the early 1960s, the share of foreigners in the labor force reached 30%, but fell to 15% at the end of the same decade as a result of restrictions imposed by the Swiss government. Throughout the 1990s, foreign workers made up over 25% of all employment. They do most of the work that does not require qualifications, many of them are employed in construction, metallurgy and mechanical engineering.

Industry.

The high standard of living of the Swiss population was achieved thanks to the large-scale development of various industries. The Swiss watch industry has gained worldwide fame, concentrated mainly in the western part of the country (La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, Geneva) and Schaffhausen, Thun, Bern and Olten. In the 1970s, due to competition from East Asian countries, this sector of the Swiss economy experienced a severe crisis, but in the 1980s it was overcome by the production of inexpensive electronic watches.

The textile industry, the oldest in the country, has been a major industry for many years. However, during the Second World War there was a shift towards the metallurgy and chemical industries, and throughout the 1980s the production of machinery and equipment developed rapidly. In the 1990s, the production of chemicals and medicines, scientific and measuring instruments, optical instruments, machine tools and food products, especially cheese and chocolate, played a major role. Other industrial products included shoes, paper, leather and rubber products.

International trade.

Switzerland's highly developed foreign trade is based on the export of industrial products such as machinery, watches, medicines, electronic equipment, chemicals and clothing. In 1991, the share of manufacturing products accounted for approx. 90% of the country's export earnings. Export structure in 1997: 20% – machinery and equipment; 9% – electrical machines and equipment; 9% – organic chemical products; 9% – pharmaceutical products; 6% – precision instruments and watches, 6% – precious metals, 4% – artificial materials.

Switzerland's foreign trade balance usually ran a deficit, which was traditionally covered by the import of foreign capital, income from the export of capital, income from foreign tourism, insurance and transport. In the mid-1990s, thanks to improvements in imports, a small trade surplus was achieved for the first time: in 1997, the value of exports was 105.1 billion Swiss francs, and imports - 103.1 billion.

Switzerland's leading foreign trade partners are Germany, the USA, Italy, France and the UK. Switzerland was one of the founding countries of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959, in 1972 Swiss voters approved a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (now the European Union, EU), and in 1977 all tariffs on industrial goods were abolished. In 1992, Switzerland applied to join the EU, but later that year Swiss voters voted against the country's entry into the European Economic Area (EEA). This project was aimed at facilitating the free movement of labor, goods, services and capital in 7 EFTA countries and 12 EU countries. After this, Switzerland entered into an agreement with the EU on limited participation in the EEA; As a result, Switzerland reduced duties on goods transported through its territory by EU member states.

Agriculture.

About 12% of Switzerland's area is used for arable land and another 28% for extensive cattle ranching and dairy production. About a third of the country's territory is occupied by unproductive land (at least unsuitable for agriculture), especially in the cantons of Uri, Valais and Grisons, and a quarter is covered with forests. It is not surprising that 40% of food products have to be imported. At the same time, Switzerland provides itself with wheat; meat and dairy products are produced in abundance. The main centers of agriculture are concentrated in the cantons of Bern, Vaud, Zurich, Fribourg and Aargau. The main agricultural crops are wheat, potatoes and sugar beets. In 1996, the country had 1,772 thousand heads of cattle (of which about 40% were dairy cows), 1,580 thousand pigs, 442 thousand sheep and 52 thousand goats. The large timber processing industry serves domestic and foreign markets. However, in recent years, Switzerland's forests have been hit hard by air pollution, prompting the government to impose strict controls on vehicle exhaust emissions.

Energy.

In 1996, 54% of Switzerland's energy was generated by hydroelectric power plants built on numerous mountain rivers. Five nuclear plants satisfy most of the country's energy needs. However, the use of nuclear energy remains in question: in 1990, Swiss voters approved a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants.

Switzerland has long remained a major oil importer, but natural gas imports since 1974 and energy conservation measures have led to a decline in oil imports. In 1991, crude oil came to Switzerland mainly from Libya and Great Britain, while refined petroleum products came from Germany, the Benelux countries and France. The main suppliers of natural gas are Germany and the Netherlands.

Transport and communications.

Switzerland has a highly developed transport system. The Rhine, the largest navigable waterway, is navigable within Switzerland only on the 19 km long Basel-Rheinfelden section. A large river port in Basel was put into operation. In the 1990s, its annual cargo turnover was 9 million tons. The Rhine-Rhone Canal is also of great importance for the transport of industrial goods.

The length of the Swiss railway network in 1995 was 5,719 km. The railways are almost completely nationalized and electrified and are among the best in Europe. Since they were laid in highly rugged terrain, the construction of numerous bridges and tunnels was required. In 1995, Switzerland had over 71,380 km of first-class roads. The passenger car fleet in 1996 reached almost 3.3 million, i.e. There was one car for every two residents of the country. In 1964, the Grand Saint Bernard Tunnel was opened, the first road tunnel in the Alps. Built in 1980, the Gotthard Tunnel is currently the longest road tunnel in the world (16.4 km).

Switzerland is the only country that does not have access to the seas, but has a significant navy. In 1941, it acquired several ocean-going vessels to support the delivery of important supplies during World War II, and continued to expand its fleet after the war. In 1985, the cargo turnover of its merchant fleet was estimated at 225.4 million registered tons. The fleet includes many modern vessels designed to transport from 6 thousand to 10 thousand tons of cargo, as well as several tankers.

The federal government owns all telephone and telegraph lines, as well as the radio and television network. In the 1980s, a major program to modernize telecommunications systems was implemented.

Monetary system and banks.

Switzerland is one of the most important financial centers in the world. Its banking system greatly exceeds the volume required for domestic transactions. There are two interconnected banking systems: the public system, which includes the Swiss National Bank and cantonal banks, and the private banking system. The Swiss National Bank, which began operations in 1907, is the only financial institution that issues national currency. The main monetary unit is the Swiss franc, one of the most stable currencies in the world. The National Bank is controlled by the federal authorities and has great influence on the economic policy of the confederation.

The Swiss private banking system in the 1990s consisted of several large commercial banks, members of the Big Four: Schweizerischer Bankverein (SBF), Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft (SBG), Schweizerische Kreditanstalt and Schweizerische Volskbank. In 1997, the Big Four became the Big Three after the merger of the SBG with the SBF. There are also 28 cantonal banks, hundreds of regional and savings banks, financial campaigns and other banks, 20 of which are owned by foreigners. The role of foreign banks is increasing: in the late 1990s they owned more than 10% of Swiss banking holdings.

Depositors have long been attracted to Swiss banks: in accordance with the Swiss banking law of 1934, banks are prohibited from providing information about their clients without their consent. Under pressure from other governments, especially the United States, regulations have been passed to allow the disclosure of deposits, especially when depositors are under investigation for currency crimes such as counterfeiting and insider trading. After much debate, the Swiss government in the late 1990s also allowed the secrets of deposits to be revealed in connection with the search for funds belonging to victims of the Nazi genocide.

The Swiss Stock Exchange is one of the most active international markets for trading stocks and bonds. The Zurich exchange is the largest in continental Europe. Switzerland also plays an important role in the global insurance market, especially in the field of commercial insurance. Some leading Swiss insurance companies derive more than half of their income from operations on the foreign market.

Tourism.

The tourism industry is one of Switzerland's vital sources of income. In 1996, over 18 million people stayed in Switzerland on holiday, arriving mainly from Germany, Great Britain, France, the USA, the Benelux countries and Scandinavia.

The state budget.

Switzerland's budget is usually more or less balanced, but in the early 1990s, due to the economic downturn, the expenditure side of the budget increased. In 1997, expenditures were estimated at CHF 44.1 billion and revenues at CHF 38.9 billion. The main sources of revenue were income taxes, turnover taxes and import duties.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

Universal primary and secondary education is the responsibility of the cantonal authorities, so the age limit for compulsory education varies. Most children attend school between the ages of 7 and 15 or 16 years. Almost all public schools are free. There are practically no illiterates in the country. There are many private schools in Switzerland that accept students from all over the world. There are 9 universities in the country - in Basel, Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Fribourg, Neuchâtel, Lugano and St. Gallen. All of them are under the control of the cantons. There are many foreign students studying at universities. There are several other higher education institutions. The total number of students in 1997/1998 was 93 thousand.

Development of culture.

Switzerland is a country with a rich cultural heritage. She gave the world many outstanding artists, writers and scientists. These are Nikolaus Manuel (1484–1530), a talented artist of the Renaissance, and the physician Paracelsus (c. 1493–1541), who is considered the first natural scientist of the modern era. The theologian Nicholas of Flues (1417–1487), who was canonized in 1947, received wide recognition. The activities of the great religious reformers Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) and John Calvin (1509–1564), as well as prominent psychologists Carl Gustav Jung (1895–1961) and Jean Piaget (1896–1980), are associated with Switzerland. Established Swiss artists include Heinrich Füssli (1742–1825), Ferdinand Hodler (1853–1918) and Paul Klee (1879–1940). The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), the sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901–1966), the architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965), and the teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) were also natives of Switzerland.

Music and dancing.

Swiss folk music includes song and instrumental music. A specific song genre of the Alpine mountaineers is yodeling, characterized by rapid transitions from the chest low register of the voice to the high head register (falsetto) and back. Swiss composers such as Otmar Schöck (1886–1957), Frank Martin (1890–1974) and Willy Burkhard (1900–1955) are famous. Arthur Honegger (1892–1955), who belonged to the modern French school, had Swiss parents, and he began to study music in Zurich.

Several cities in Switzerland, most notably Zurich, Basel and Geneva, have ballet companies. In 1989, the innovative choreographer Maurice Bejart moved with his dance troupe from Brussels to Lausanne. Expressive traditional folk dances are showcased at national and regional festivals held annually in Switzerland.

Literature.

Swiss literature has a rich tradition. Johann Bodmer (1698–1783) and Johann Brettinger (1701–1776) influenced German literature. The famous writer Germaine de Stael (1766–1817) had Swiss parents. Writer and teacher Johann Rudolf Vis (1781–1830) is best known as the publisher who published Swiss Robinson– a book written by his father, Johann David Wys (1743–1818). Johanna Spiri (1827–1901) became famous as the author of a classic children's book Heidi.

Other famous Swiss writers include Jeremiah Gotthelf, Gottfried Keller, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Rodolphe Töpffer and Karl Spitteler. Swiss writers of the 20th century. Albert Steffen and Charles Ferdinand Ramus (1878–1947), Max Frisch and Friedrich Dürrenmatt created many wonderful works. Payder Lancel, writing in Romansh, gained a reputation as an outstanding poet. Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt is famous for his work Italian culture during the Renaissance, and Johann von Müller (1752–1809, he earned the honorary nickname of “Swiss Tacitus”) - through labor Swiss history.

STORY

Creation of the Swiss Confederation.

Among the Celtic tribes that inhabited the territory of Switzerland in prehistoric times, the Helvetii stood out, becoming allies of the Romans after they were defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibractus in 58 BC. e. In 15 BC The Rhaetae were also conquered by Rome. In the next three centuries, Roman influence contributed to the development of the culture of the population and its Romanization.

In the 4th–5th centuries. AD The territory of present-day Switzerland was captured by the German tribes of the Alemanni and Burgundians. In the 6th–7th centuries. it became part of the kingdom of the Franks and in the 8th–9th centuries. was under the rule of Charlemagne and his successors. The subsequent fate of these lands is closely connected with the history of the Holy Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, they were captured by the Swabian dukes in the 10th century, but they were unable to keep them under their rule, and the region disintegrated into separate fiefs. In the 12th–13th centuries. Attempts were made to unite them under the rule of large feudal lords, such as the Zähringens, the founders of Bern and Fribourg, and the Habsburgs. In 1264 the Habsburgs gained a dominant position in eastern Switzerland. The Counts of Savoy gained a foothold in the west.

The Habsburgs encountered strong resistance when they tried to unify their domains by abolishing the privileges of some local communities. At the center of this resistance were the peasants living in the mountain valleys of Schwyz (hence the name of the country Switzerland), Uri and Unterwalden. These forest cantons, located on the strategically important road over the Gotthard Pass, benefited from the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperors and the papacy. In 1231 Uri, and in 1240 Schwyz received the rights of imperial territories of the Holy Roman Empire, freed from dependence on petty feudal lords. After the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250, the empire entered a period of decline, marked by civil war during the Great Interregnum of 1250–1273. The Habsburgs, who did not recognize the rights of Uri and Schwyz, tried to conquer Schwyz in 1245–1252. Uri and Unterwalden came to his aid and entered into a temporary alliance. In August 1291, the Swiss communities entered into a permanent defensive alliance and signed a treaty known as the "Eternal Alliance", the first documented evidence of cooperation between the forest cantons. This year marks the beginning of the official history of the Swiss state. Part of the traditional legend about these events, associated with the name of William Tell, is not confirmed in historical documents.

Growth and expansion of the confederation.

The first proof of the strength of the confederation was given in 1315, when the highlanders of the forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden faced superior forces of the Habsburgs and their allies. At the Battle of Morgarten they won what is considered one of the most important victories in Swiss history. This victory encouraged other communities to join the confederation. In 1332–1353, the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern, and the rural communities of Glarus and Zug entered into separate agreements with the three united cantons, forming a series of confederations. Although these agreements did not have a common basis, they were able to ensure the main thing - the independence of each of the participants. Having been defeated at the battles of Sempach in 1386 and Näfels in 1388, the Habsburgs were finally forced to recognize the independence of the cantons, united in a confederation.

At the beginning of the 15th century. The confederates felt strong enough to go on the offensive. During numerous wars and campaigns against the Austrian Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Savoy, Burgundy and Milan, and the French King Francis I, the Swiss gained a reputation as magnificent warriors. They were feared by their enemies and respected by their allies. During the "heroic age" of Swiss history (1415–1513), the territory of the confederation expanded by annexing new lands in Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, and also south of the Alps. 5 new cantons were created. From 1513–1798 Switzerland became a confederation of 13 cantons. In addition to them, the confederation included lands that entered into an alliance with one or more cantons. There was no permanent central body: all-Union Sejms were periodically convened, where only full-fledged cantons had the right to vote. There was no all-Union administration, army or finance, and this situation remained until the French Revolution.

From the Reformation to the French Revolution.

In 1523 Huldrych Zwingli openly defied the Roman Catholic Church and led a movement for religious reform in Zurich. He was supported by residents of a number of other cities in northern Switzerland, but in rural areas he met resistance. In addition, differences arose with the radical Anabaptist wing of his followers in Zurich itself. The Zwinglian movement of Protestantism subsequently merged with the movement of John Calvin from Geneva into the Swiss Reformed Church. Since the cantons of central Switzerland remained Catholic, a schism along religious lines was inevitable. After short religious clashes, an approximate balance was established between both religions. In 1648, Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was officially recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia.

Political life of Switzerland in the 18th century. was calm. The Bernese naturalist and poet Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), the historian J. von Müller, as well as the Geneva-born philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and the great educator and humanist from Zurich I. G. Pestalozzi became famous in the “Age of Enlightenment.” At this time, a stream of foreign guests rushed to Switzerland, among them Voltaire, Gibbon and Goethe.

Revolution and restoration of the Confederacy.

The French Revolution had a profound impact on Switzerland, both politically and philosophically. In 1798, French troops invaded the country and occupied it. The French provided the conquered cantons with a constitution that replaced the loose federation with a "single and indivisible Helvetic Republic". Revolutionary ideas of democracy, civil liberties and centralized power led to the creation of a strong centralized government for the first time in Swiss history. The Constitution of 1798, based on the constitution of the first French Republic, provided all Swiss with equal rights before the law and a code of civil liberties. However, it encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not want to recognize it. The struggle between the federalists, who opposed the new system, and the centralists, who supported it, temporarily subsided when Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 granted the republic a constitution known as the “Act of Mediation (Mediation)”. It restored many of the former cantonal privileges and expanded the number of cantons from 13 to 19.

After Napoleon's defeat, the cantons dissociated themselves from the regime imposed by the French and tried to revive the former confederation. After lengthy negotiations, a Treaty of Union was developed, signed in September 1814. It proclaimed a union of 22 sovereign cantons, but did not indicate that they constituted one state. In the declaration of the Congress of Vienna (March 1815) and the Treaty of Paris (November 1815), the great powers recognized the eternal neutrality of Switzerland.

Civil war and the new constitution.

Over the next three decades, liberal sentiment grew in Switzerland. In response to the actions of radicals in the Diet and in some cantons (closing of monasteries in Aargau, expulsion of the Jesuits), seven conservative Catholic cantons formed the Sonderbund defensive union. In 1847, the Sejm, by a small majority of votes, announced the dissolution of this association. The federal army, under the leadership of General Guillaume Dufour, won the civil war before European powers could intervene in the conflict.

As a result of the victory over the Sonderbund, a new constitution was adopted (1848). A balance was achieved between the aspirations of the centralist radicals and the federalist conservatives. From a fragile union of cantonal states, Switzerland turned into a single union state. A permanent executive body was created in the form of a federal council of seven members elected by the legislature from two chambers - the national council and the council of cantons. The federal government was given the power to issue money, regulate customs regulations, and, most importantly, determine foreign policy. Bern was chosen as the federal capital. The revised constitution of 1874 and subsequent amendments further strengthened the power of the federal government without jeopardizing the federal basis of the Swiss state.

In the last decades of the 19th century. Swiss industry developed, and railway construction began. Imported raw materials were processed into high-quality products, which were then supplied to the world market.

Switzerland in the world wars.

With the outbreak of the First World War, a threat arose to the national unity of Switzerland: the French-speaking Swiss mainly sympathized with France, and the German-speaking Swiss with Germany. The four-year mobilization placed a heavy burden on the country's economy, there was a shortage of industrial raw materials, unemployment grew, and there was a shortage of food. General discontent resulted in mass strikes in November 1918.

In 1919 Geneva was chosen as the headquarters of the League of Nations. Switzerland became a member of this organization only after heated internal debates and after receiving guarantees of its neutrality. The outbreak of World War II found the country's population more united: few people in Switzerland welcomed Nazism. However, strategically the position of the confederation was much more vulnerable, since it was surrounded by totalitarian powers.

Foreign policy.

With the end of World War II, the League of Nations ceased to exist. Switzerland decided not to join the newly created United Nations (UN) and acquired observer status, which allowed the European headquarters and several specialized UN organizations to be located in Geneva, including the International Labor Organization and the World Health Organization. Switzerland considered that refusal to join the UN was the best way to maintain its independent position as a neutral country in the ever-changing balance of power on the world stage. This decision strengthened Switzerland's position in international politics. The country is a member of several UN organizations: the International Court of Justice, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Switzerland provides significant assistance to developing countries.

Following a traditional policy of neutrality, Switzerland faced great difficulties in participating in various European integration plans in the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1948, it joined the Organization of European Economic Cooperation, but refrained from joining the European Economic Community (later the European Union, EU). The obvious political goals of this organization were unacceptable to Switzerland. However, it became one of the founding countries of the European Free Trade Association in 1959, and in 1963 it joined the Council of Europe, again demonstrating its interest in European cooperation. In 1972, a national referendum ratified a free trade agreement with the EU, according to which tariffs on all industrial products were gradually removed by 1977. In 1983, Switzerland became a full member of the Group of Ten, the grouping of major savers of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Political and social changes.

In the 1960s, Switzerland faced a severe internal problem. Several French-speaking districts located in the Jura Mountains in the canton of Bern demanded the formation of a new canton. This met with resistance from the German-speaking population of the region. Federal troops were sent in to prevent clashes. In the early 1970s, voters in the canton of Bern approved a referendum in the French-speaking districts on the issue of secession. As a result of a series of plebiscites held over a number of years, three of the seven districts and several border communities voted to create a new canton. This new canton was named Jura. The decision was then approved in a national referendum in 1978, and the new canton entered the confederation in 1979.

In the 1960s, noticeable tension arose over the issue of the large number of workers from southern European countries who came to work in Switzerland. Despite the traditional international character of the country and the need for foreign participation in its economic life, many Swiss were hostile towards migrants from southern Europe and considered them to be responsible for the country's internal problems, such as the housing shortage. Accordingly, the government introduced restrictions that sharply reduced the share of foreigners among the workforce. The political movement, which demanded a further reduction in the number of foreign workers, did not achieve much support in the elections, but was able to organize referendums in 1970, 1974 and 1977 on constitutional amendments to limit the share of foreigners in the Swiss population. These proposals were not approved, but attempts to limit the presence of foreigners in Switzerland continued into the 1980s and 1990s. In 1982, voters rejected a government proposal to liberalize the rules governing the stay of foreign workers and their families, and in 1987 immigration was further restricted. In 1994, referendum participants approved a tightening of the law on the stay of foreigners. Nevertheless, the contingent of foreign workers remains large - 25% of the total number of employees. At the same time, the number of foreign nationals living in Switzerland has increased to approximately 1.4 million. Many of them are refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and developing countries.

In the mid-1980s, the Swiss government made attempts to end the country's isolation and conclude a number of bilateral and multilateral agreements with EU countries. In a 1986 referendum, Swiss voters overwhelmingly rejected the government's proposal to join the UN, but six years later they voted for Swiss participation in the IMF and the World Bank. In December 1992, seven months after the government announced Switzerland's intention to join the EU, the population rejected the proposal to join the European Economic Area, which since January 1994 has included the countries of the European Free Trade Association with the EU in a single free trade area.

Switzerland's attitude towards the gradually strengthening EU remained a stumbling block for the country's foreign policy in the late 1990s. The 1995 elections revealed a growing polarization of voters' opinions on this issue. The greatest success in them was achieved, on the one hand, by the Social Democrats, who actively support integration, and on the other, by the right-wing Swiss People's Party, which opposes not only joining the EU, but also against participation in the European Economic Area and cooperation between Switzerland and other trading countries. and political unions. The decision taken in 1996 to allow the Swiss armed forces to participate in the maneuvers and technological programs of the Partnership for Peace organization caused violent protests in the country.

Controversy over monetary contributions from victims of Nazi genocide.

In the late 1990s, the Swiss government was involved in an international dispute over the return by private Swiss banks of gold and other valuable property confiscated by Nazi Germany during World War II from victims of the genocide. The subject of discussion was also the cash deposits and valuables placed by European Jews in Swiss banks before and during the war in order to protect them from capture by the Nazis.

Immediately after the war, Switzerland agreed to return the stolen deposits to the victims and their heirs. However, in litigation that attracted much public attention in the mid-1990s, private plaintiffs and Jewish legal groups argued that Switzerland had failed to live up to its obligations and accused Swiss banks of preventing heirs from accessing "frozen" accounts. deceased investors.

Since 1996, American local and federal politicians and organizations have launched a campaign to return the so-called. Nazi gold, and many US municipalities, including New York City, threatened to impose economic sanctions against Swiss banks if the latter refused to assist the plaintiffs. In August 1998, the Schweizerische Kreditanstalt banking group and the SchBF agreed to pay $1.25 billion in compensation to the victims of the genocide and their heirs. After this, threats of sanctions were stopped.

The controversy damaged Switzerland's international prestige and caused outrage in the country. The US and European media often portrayed Swiss bankers and diplomats as extremely unsympathetic people who showed indifference to the claims of genocide victims. Public attention was also drawn to the aid that came to Nazi Germany from Switzerland. Despite the country's neutrality, Swiss industrialists supplied raw materials and industrial products to Hitler's Germany. Many Swiss politicians felt that US officials were portraying them as villains; The Swiss were of the opinion that the agreement reached was a capitulation to outside pressure, humiliating for the nation as a whole.

The fight for women's rights.

The women's enfranchisement movement, which first achieved success in the French-speaking cantons in the late 1950s, achieved its main goal only in 1971, when women gained the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. However, in a number of cantons, women continued to face obstacles for a long time in exercising their voting rights in local elections. In 1991, in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, the last Swiss territory to oppose women's emancipation, they gained the right to participate in annual meetings of voters.

The next step was the adoption of a constitutional amendment in 1981 guaranteeing equal rights for women. In 1984 Elisabeth Kopp became the first woman elected to a federal council. In 1985, women were granted equal rights in the family (before this, the husband was considered the head of the family, which allowed him to unilaterally manage family finances and not allow his wife to work). In 1991, the city council of Bern decided that its membership should not be more than 60% of the same gender.

Environmental protection measures.

Switzerland's transit position in the system of meridional European transportation carried out by heavy vehicles has complicated the environmental situation on the country's mountain roads. In addition, exhaust gases contributed to the destruction of forests that protect mountain villages in Switzerland from avalanches and mudflows. To reduce exhaust emissions from vehicles, the Swiss government introduced road taxes in 1985, established a maximum weight limit for vehicles (28 tons), and limited traffic at night and on weekends. In a 1994 referendum, voters approved a decision that by 2004 foreign commercial cargo would have to be transported through Switzerland only by rail.

Economic development.

Until the end of the 1980s, Switzerland had a positive budget balance. Its economy was characterized by low inflation, low unemployment and low interest rates. In 1988 and 1989, budgets exceeded revenues by $900 million and $300 million, respectively; unemployment in 1987 reached a record low of 0.7%. However, rising inflation (6% in 1991) prompted the Swiss National Bank to raise interest rates and limit the issue of money. In the early 1990s, there was a recession in the country's economy. Although gross domestic product contracted by less than 1% between 1991 and 1993, the unemployment rate reached 3.6% in 1992 and 4.5% at the end of 1993, mainly due to a decline in construction and engineering jobs. In 1994 there were signs of economic recovery, especially in international financial services, but unemployment in manufacturing and other industries continued to rise. In 1997, the situation improved due to increased exports, demand revived, and investments increased, but investment in construction continued to decline.

Economic indicators. GDP - $326.5 billion (data for 2010), GDP per capita - $42,900 (data for 2010), inflation rate - 0.7% (data for 2010), industrial production growth - 2.4% (data for 2010). Main types of agricultural products: grain, fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs.

Switzerland at the end of the 20th century. – early 21st century

In December 1998, Ruth Dreyfuss, the first female president, was elected president of the Swiss Confederation.

A year later, in 1999, the Swiss parliament re-elected all seven members of the federal council, depriving the right-wing Swiss People's Party of a seat on the council, and thus managed to maintain the coalition and balance of power established since 1959, which had been ruling since 1959.

In January 2000, Adolphe Augie was elected president. But already at the beginning of 2001, thanks to the rotation system, Leuenberger Moritz, a representative of the Social Democratic Party, became the new president. In the same year, in a referendum, the majority of voters (about 77%) voted against the initiative to join the European Union.

In March 2002, in a referendum, 55% of the population voted for Switzerland to join the United Nations, and in September 2002 Switzerland became the 190th member of the UN. In 2005, the Swiss population voted to join the Schengen zone.

In 2003, parliamentary elections were held, and the right-wing Swiss People's Party won 55 seats in the Federal Council, while the center parties suffered a crushing defeat. This victory was reflected in the balance of power in the new council, and another seat was added for a People's Party representative. Thus, there are now 8 members in the Federal Council. In 2007, the People's Party won the general elections again, and increased the number of seats in parliament to 62; the Social Democrats were forced to give up their position. The cornerstone of the People's Party policy is a sharply negative attitude towards foreigners. The party's campaign materials directly referred to immigrants as "drug dealers" and "criminals." Although immigration provided the country with labor resources.
List of presidents from 2002 to 2011: K. Villiger (2002, Radical Democratic Party), P. Couchepin (2003, RDP), Joseph Deys (2004, Christian Democratic People's Party), S. Schmid (2005, Conservative Democratic Party) , M. Leuenberger (2006, Social Democratic Party), M. Calmy-Re (2007, SDP), P. Couchepin (2008, RDP), Hans-Rudolf Merz (2009, Free Democratic Party), D. Leuthard (2010 , CDNP), M. Calmy-Re (2011, SDP).

On October 23, 2011, federal elections were held to the National Council (lower house of parliament) and the Council of Cantons (upper house of parliament). The Swiss People's Party received the majority of votes in the National Council. However, they received 7 fewer seats in parliament (25.9% of votes) than in the last elections. The following also entered the lower house: the Social Democratic Party (18.1%), the Free Democratic Party (15%) and the Christian Democratic Party (12%), the Green Party (8.3%), the Green Liberal Party (5.3 %), Bourgeois Democratic Party (5.2%).

Literature:

Sabelnikov L.V. Switzerland. Economics and foreign trade. M., 1962
Mogutin V.B. Switzerland: big business in a small country. M., 1975
Dragunov G.P. Switzerland: history and modernity. M., 1978
A Handbook on Democracy: The Functioning of a Democratic State: The Example of Switzerland. M., 1994
Schaffhauser R. Fundamentals of Swiss communal law using the example of communal law of the canton of St. Gallen. St. Petersburg, 1996

Nature conservation in Switzerland. Growth and expansion of the confederation

Holidays in the Swiss Alps

Mount Matterhorn

Mount Pilatus in Switzerland

Lake Geneva

Swiss national park

Verzasca River

Lauterbrunnen Valley

Caves of Saint Beatus

NATURE

Climate of Switzerland

Swiss statistics (as of 2012)

Water system of Switzerland

Flora of Switzerland

Wildlife of Switzerland

Terrain.

Water resources.

Climate.

Flora and fauna.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

Languages.

Religion.

Population.

STATE AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE

Federalism and democracy.

Political system.

Political parties.

Armed forces

Switzerland as an international center.

ECONOMY

General characteristics.

Labor resources.

Industry.

International trade.

Agriculture.

Energy.

Transport and communications.

Monetary system and banks.

Tourism.

The state budget.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

Development of culture.

Music and dancing.

Literature.

STORY

Creation of the Swiss Confederation.

Growth and expansion of the confederation.

From the Reformation to the French Revolution.

Revolution and restoration of the Confederacy.

Civil war and the new constitution.

Switzerland in the world wars.

Foreign policy.

Political and social changes.

Controversy over monetary contributions from victims of Nazi genocide.

The fight for women's rights.

Environmental protection measures.

Economic development.

Switzerland at the end of the 20th century. – early 21st century

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