Incas, Mayans, Aztecs. Who is this? Names of Indian tribes: Mayans, Aztecs, Incas, Iroquois, Mohicans, Apaches. American Indians What civilization came before the Incas or Mayans
Inca Empire
Like all enlightened peoples of antiquity, the Incas clothed the origins of their origins in the form of myths.
The most famous of them was brought to us by Garcilaso de la Vega in his Commentaries. He wrote it down from memory, from the words of his Indian contemporaries. This myth tells that Manco Capac and his sister-wife Mama Ocllo, fulfilling the will of their father Sun-Inti, emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca to convert the savages who inhabited the surrounding lands to the path of civilization and create a great empire. From their father, they received a magical golden rod, which was supposed to show them where to establish the center of their state. Not far from the village of Pakari-Tambo, which lies at the foot of the Huanakauri hill, Manco Capac stuck this rod into the ground, and by the will of divine providence it went into it with great ease. This was a sign that the capital of the future empire was to be founded there. Such a manifestation of the highest will is quite comparable to an eagle holding a snake in its beak on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, where, as we remember, the Aztecs founded their state.
The main hero of Inca mythology was Manco Kalik. Like Quetzalcoatl among the Nahuas and Bochica among the Chibcha, he simultaneously combined the characteristics of a demigod and a great leader who led his subjects onto the path of civilization. Indeed, something truly great had to happen in order to preserve in the memory of generations down to the present day the legends about this man and the founder of the state, elevated to the level of a deity, which survived time itself and the consistently destroyed culture at the origins of which he stood.
From there, the settlers reached the valley where the village of Pakari-Tambo was located. There they settled. Several centuries later, it was from this place that they began the conquest of the Cusco region and subsequently created their own state there. After Manco Capac, Tahuantinsuyu was ruled by 12 of his Inca successors. However, from the first of them, who lived in the 13th-14th centuries, Sinchi Roqui, Lloque Yupanqui, Maita Capac, Capac Yupanqui, Inca Roqui and Yahuara Huacaca, only names have reached us. The true history of the empire began with Viracocha Inca, who ruled in the first half of the 15th century. His ignominious flight to the village of Caquia, in the Shakishauan valley, while fleeing from the Chancas, led to the fact that his son Cusi Yupanqui Pachacutec became a hero liberator of the Incas.
All the deeds of the Incas, since the era of Pachacutec, were preserved for posterity with extreme care, since the Incas themselves highly valued their glory and had a clear understanding of the meaning of history. The constant focus of their activities to glorify Tawantinsuyu is evidenced by the creation of a special honorary post of the official historian of the empire, elected from the panaka of each Inca, in other words, from the numerous relatives of the ruler left by him after death, especially wives and children. The history of the empire was passed down from generation to generation, so that all its most important events were always fresh in the memory of the Quipucamayoc of each Panaka, even after the Spanish conquest. Valcárcel wrote that when the Spaniards came to Cuzco, they received the first information about the history of the Incas during the time of Vaca de Castro (Cristobal Vaca de Castro) from the surviving Quipucamayocs of each Panaka, who never mixed with each other.
It is thanks to this that we know about the battles of Pachacutec with the Aymara Cola on the shores of Lake Titicaca, about his campaigns against the peoples of the south of present-day Peru right up to the coast, and about everything else too.
According to legends, the founder of the Inca “empire” was the legendary Manco Capac, who bore the title Inca as a sign of his divine origin. There are several versions of the origin of Tawantinsuyu. According to one of them, Manco Capac and his sister-wife Mama Ocllo, fulfilling the will of their sun father - Inti and moon mother - Quilla, came out of the waters of Lake Titicaca to turn the savages who inhabited the surrounding lands onto the path of civilization and create a great " empire." From their father they received a magical golden rod, which was supposed to show them where to establish the center of the state. Not far from the village of Pakaritampu, which lay at the foot of the Huanakauri hill, Manco Capac stuck this rod into the ground, and by the will of divine providence it entered it with extraordinary ease. This was a sign that the capital of the future “empire” should be founded here.
In many ways, this myth is close to the myth of Tenochtitlan, built by the Aztecs on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Today it is hardly possible to definitively answer whether Manco Capac really existed or is a mythical character. He combined the features of a demigod and a great leader who, like the legendary Maya-Toltec Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan, led his subjects onto the path of civilization. The legendary Manco Capac founded a small state in the Cusco Valley. The emergence of this state, which later turned into the greatest “empire” of pre-Columbian America, can be roughly dated to the first half of the 13th century.
We still imagine what happened next very superficially. There are several different, sometimes very contradictory interpretations of the history of the Incas, especially its initial stage. The Incas began to emerge little by little from the fog of all kinds of myths and legends only around 1437 or 1438. In that harsh time for the inhabitants of Cusco, they encountered a worthy, strong opponent - the neighboring Indians - the Chancas.
According to one of the legends, the beginning of the war was unsuccessful for the Incas, and soon the Chancas, led by their victorious commanders Anco Huallo, Astu and Tamai Huaranca, were already standing in front of the gates of Cuzco, like the great Carthaginian commander Hannibal in front of the Collin Gate of Rome. The panic began.
At the most critical moment of the many-hour bloody battle for Cuzco, when the initiative changed hands more than once and it was completely unclear who would be favored by capricious fortune, an ambush detachment of selected Inca warriors struck the rear of the advancing countless hordes of Chunks. The Incas have won! It was the bloodiest and most brutal battle in the history of ancient American wars. Thousands, if not tens of thousands of soldiers died on both sides. One of the Incas' most dangerous enemies was defeated and then turned into an ally.
Soon after this legendary and very difficult victory, Inca Pachacuti (or Pachacutec) became the ruler of the Incas.
Pachacuti Inca (1438-1471) was one of the key figures in the history of the Inca "empire". The year 1438 should probably be considered the beginning of its creation. The historicity of his personality is beyond doubt. He reorganized the army, increasing its combat effectiveness and increasing the number of generals. Under Pachacuti, the Incas' military campaigns took place in the southern and southeastern directions: in an exceptionally stubborn struggle, the Incas captured the lands of the Aymara Indians along the shores of Lake Titicaca, took possession of colossal herds of llamas and alpacas (a type of llama) - almost hundreds of thousands of heads. For those times, it was an outstanding victory and enormous wealth. From now on, the armies of Cuzco no longer needed vehicles, clothing and food. The capture of these herds meant no less to the Incas than the later capture of their treasures meant to the Spaniards. Pachacuti declared animals “royal” property, and founded the richest temples on the islands of Lake Titicaca. As a result of his conquests, the foundations of the huge Incan “empire” were laid, and he himself, in fact, became the first “emperor” of the Incas - the “creator” “emperor”. Pachacuti was one of the most outstanding personalities in ancient American history - warrior, politician, philosopher, historian, architect, poet.
While the winner of the Chunks and Aymara, Pachacuti, fought near Lake Titicaca, his heir grew up, Tupac (Topa) Yupanqui, whose military glory would later eclipse his father’s. (It is believed that in total Pachacuti had about 100 sons and 50 daughters.) The relationship between Pachacuti and Tupac Yupanqui, as often happens between strong personalities, even when they are closely related, was apparently tense, if not outright hostile. However, in the great northern campaign they both acted together. As a result, the northern border of Tahuantinsuyu ran through the territory of modern Ecuador, and the size of the Inca state became equal to the area of modern Great Britain.
In 1471, shortly before the death of his father Pachacuti, Tupac Yupanqui became the new Inca. Tupac Yupanqui (1471-1493) significantly expanded the boundaries of the Incan “empire”, uniting the entire ancient Peruvian ecumene, and entered the pre-Columbian history of South America as an “emperor” - a conqueror.
Legends tell different stories about the numerous military campaigns of this Peruvian Alexander the Great. According to one of them, unexpectedly and quickly invading Chimor - the largest state on the territory of Peru, the most dangerous for the Incas - he quickly took possession of it. The ruler of Chimora, the powerful Minchansaman, did not expect such a powerful blow from the north, where the Chimorans did not have a common border with the Incas, and therefore no fortifications. The victory over Chimor, which was more developed than the Inca state, stretched along a narrow (50-70 km) and long (about 1 thousand km) strip along the coast, gave the Incas access to the Pacific Ocean. One after another, the rich Peruvian coastal valleys and the capital of Chimora at the mouth of the Moche River, the largest city of pre-Hispanic South America, Chan Chan (area 26 km) with a population of about 20-30 thousand people, were captured. After the defeat, Chan-Chan was deserted.
Having conquered Chimora, the Incas apparently captured untold wealth. The Spaniards did not find such treasures anywhere in America as in the tombs of the “kings” and nobles of Chimora they plundered. Their total cost was a fantastic amount for those times - about a million (!) Spanish gold castellanos. It can be assumed that most of the gold that the Indians collected as a ransom for Inca Atahualpa, who was captured later, in 1532, by the Spaniards, was either looted on the coast by the Incas sixty years earlier, or, at least, processed by the hands of the most skilled Chimora craftsmen - jewelers stolen from Chan Chan to Cuzco.
There were no more trips to the north. This is explained quite simply: the Incas were mountain dwellers and felt out of place when they found themselves in an unusual natural and climatic zone located several kilometers below their own. This is partly why the Incas’ forays into the coastal plain of Ecuador were unsuccessful: the hot, swampy terrain turned out to be unattractive for people accustomed to the clean, cool mountain air. In addition, in the mountainous regions of Ecuador, the armies of Tupac Yupanqui had to fight grueling and not always successful battles with freedom-loving and warlike local tribes. It is possible that the Ecuadorian leaders sent some kind of irregular tribute to the Incas, but they largely retained their independence. There was no further advance of the Incas north to the Chibcha-Muica Indians and even further north, towards Mesoamerica.
If the aged Pachacuti still witnessed the conquest of Chimora (around 1471) (perhaps he was one of the initiators of this campaign), then a new southern campaign took place after his death. Tupac Yupanqui's march to the south is the largest military operation in the history of pre-Columbian America.
At the head of a huge army, Tupac Yupanqui moved through the lands of present-day Bolivia into the northern part of modern Argentina, then crossed the Andes again, entered the deserted Atacama Desert in the north of the territory of present-day Chile, moving more than a thousand kilometers to the south. But he was unable to cross the Maule River. Having encountered courageous and fierce resistance from the Chilean Araucanavi (Mapuche), he was forced to stop. Here lies the southern border of Tawantinsuyu.
Thus, the “empire” included vast territories located in southwestern Bolivia, northwestern Argentina and northern Chile, approximately equal in area to all its other lands. It is difficult to say whether the Incas knew, when undertaking a southern campaign, that in that area there were rich deposits of copper and precious metals. In any case, it seems that this area was the ultimate goal of Tupac Yupanqui.
Although after Tupac Yupanqui there were attempts to expand the borders of the state even further, including to the east (in the humid and hot Amazon, Incan troops died or returned from there with nothing), in general the borders of the “empire” remained almost unchanged. The followers of Pachacuti and Tupac Yupanqui had to think not so much about conquest as about protecting the borders of their huge “empire.” For this purpose, the Incas built a number of fortresses along the eastern border of Tawantinsuyu and connected them with a stone wall stretching along the ridges of the mountains almost 200 km long - an American version of the Great Wall of China. True, unlike its ancient Chinese counterpart, the “Great Wall of Peru” was not so powerful, having rather a symbolic meaning. Its height did not exceed the height of a man, and therefore it was suitable only for repelling the onslaught of an enemy unfamiliar with the art of a proper siege. Only the eastern border of the “empire” required constant protection from Tahuantinsuyu’s warlike neighbors - the Guarani Indians, Diaguita, etc.
In 1493, Tupac Yupanqui died, poisoned, according to some legends, by one of his many concubines. His youngest son, a native of the city of Quito (Ecuador), Huayna Capac (1493-152?), who found himself on the throne thanks to the cunning palace intrigues of his uncle, the famous military leader Huaman Achachi, inherited a huge “empire”, which had no equal in all of Indian history. America. From north to south, it extended for almost 5 thousand km, and its territory was 2,754 thousand km 2. Huayna Capac worthily completed the work of his father and grandfather, seizing Ecuadorian lands and defending the borders of the “empire” in the southeast from the claims of the warlike Chiriguanos to carangas, and in the south - the indomitable Chilean Araucanas.
However, first of all, he had to set about establishing order within the “empire,” which had grown enormously as a result of the campaigns of his grandfather and father. Dozens of large and hundreds of small pucaras, with garrisons of soldiers, sometimes numbering several thousand warriors, ensured the protection of the “empire” from both external and internal enemies who rebelled against the Incan rule of the “kingdoms” and “provinces” that peacefully or violently entered into composition of Tahuantinsuyu (and there were many of them - more than 200: Bilkas, Jauha, Bombao, Cajamalca, Guanca, Bombacome, Quito, Carangi, Hatunkana, Ayavire, Chuquiaba, Parna and others).
Participants in the largest uprising (on the island of Puna, off the coast of present-day Ecuador) were dealt with very cruelly: every tenth rebel was thrown into the sea or stabbed, beheaded, quartered, stoned to death, hanged, etc. Not everything was calm at court either. “emperor”: one of his many uncles, the Inca Hualpaya, tried to poison him in order to free the throne for his own son... It failed.
Huayna Capac was the last Inca to rule Tahuantinsuyu before the arrival of the Spaniards. During the years of his long reign, most of which he spent in the north, in the city of Quito, this ruler managed to do a lot to strengthen the Incan “empire”, remaining in the people’s memory as an “emperor”-administrator, “emperor”-peacemaker. When Huayna Capac suddenly died (from the plague or from smallpox, or perhaps from some other disease, the epidemic of which then swept the entire north of the “empire”), without having time to name an heir, his eldest legitimate son, the arrogant Huascar, ascended the throne in Cuzco .
At that time, in Quito, Huayna Capac's favorite city (the northern capital of Tahuantinsuyu), one of Huascar's half-brothers, the independent and power-hungry Atahualpa, ruled. Having decided to use the death of his father in his own interests and the interests of the clan of the Kyoto (Ecuadorian) aristocracy, he stated that Huayna Capac, when dying, bequeathed to divide Tawantinsuyu into two parts: supposedly such a huge “empire” had become difficult to govern from one center, and that the northern half of the state he should rule - Atahualpa. As a result, when far in the north (in Panama) a “pack of hungry dogs” - Spanish conquistadors - led by the adventurer Francisco Pizarro, was preparing to conquer the treasures of the legendary Tahuantinsuyu - the most powerful tree of the non-American “empire” - a merciless struggle for the throne broke out between two brothers, which led to a bloody feud.
In the end, in 1532, the ambitious Atahualpa won, under whose command were the best Inca military leaders who had served his father - Quisquis (Keskis) and Chilco-Chim (Calcuchima) - and selected troops, selflessly devoted to him, trained under Huayna Capaque - Inca Guard. In this internecine war, the “empire” lost its former power.
Huascar was captured and imprisoned, but it was he who was the truly legitimate heir to the throne, since he was the son of Huayn Capac and his sister, i.e., according to the Inca rules, a legitimate wife - coyo. However, Atahualpa was only a bastard, that is, an illegitimate son from the marriage of Huayn Capac with his beloved wife, or rather, his concubine - the incomparable beauty Tokto Coca, the daughter of the leader of the Cara tribe (the former “king” of the city of Quito). Despite the capture of Huascar, the population of Tahuantinsuyu still recognized Huascar as the legitimate Inca.
At the end of 1532, or at the beginning of 1533, Huascar was killed on the orders of his usurper brother, and then Atahualpa himself fell at the hands of the Spanish conquistadors (1533).
Other Incas ascended the throne... The last of them was Tupac Amaru, executed by the Spaniards only in 1572. However, after the conquest of the “empire” by the Spaniards, the power of the Inca “emperors” was largely illusory. They “ruled” only in the very remote, high-mountainous regions of Tahuantinsuyu, which had not yet been conquered by the conquistadors, where in 1539 the so-called New Inca kingdom was created with its center in Vilcabamba.
Inca cities: Vilcabamba - Vilcasuaman - Vitcos - Gran Pajaten - Ingapirca - Incalyahta - Incahuasi (Ayacucho) - Incahuasi (Cañete) - Corihuairachina - Cusco - Machu Picchu - Moray - Ollantaytambo - Paititi - Paihan - Paccaritampu - Pachacamac - Pisac - Puca Pucara - Puma Punku - Raqchi - Sacsayhuaman - Tambo Colorado - Tambomachay - Tarahuasi - Tipon - Tiwanaku - Tucume - Tumebamba - Huamanmarca - Huinay Huayna - Uchkus Incañan - Uchuy Cosco - Chinchero - Choquequirao - Chincal - Yucay - Gran Vilaya - Vilcavain - Guitarrero (cave) - Pañamarca - Apurimac - Toro Muerto - Pikimachay - Pumacocha - Cumbe Mayo - Quenco - Coricancha - Moray - Picillacta - Puyupatamarca - Racchi - Rumicolca - Tambomachay - Tarahuasi - Tipon - Huayna Picchu - Huamanmarca - Huinay Huayna - La Libertad - Gran Pajaten - Temple of the Sun - Temple of the Moon - El Brujo - Lambayeque - Lima - Acaray - Aspero - Buena Vista - Cantamarca - Paramonga - Pachacamac - Pucllana - Puruchuco - Puno - Silustani - Xicairumoco - Tacna - Toquepala - Huancavelica - Huanuco
Mayan civilization
Maya - a group of Indian peoples related by language. Where did these peoples come from? How did they appear in the jungles of Central America? There is no exact answer to these and other questions. Today, one of the main points of view on this issue is that America was settled from Asia through the Bering Strait during the Upper Paleolithic period, i.e. approximately 30 thousand years ago.
The Mayans are one of the brightest civilizations of pre-Columbian America. This is a “mystery culture”, a “phenomenon culture” full of contradictions and paradoxes. It has raised a huge number of questions, but not all have answers. The Mayans, living practically in the Stone Age (they did not know metals until the 10th century AD, wheeled carts, ploughs, pack and draft animals), created an accurate solar calendar, complex hieroglyphic writing, used the concept of zero before the Arabs and Hindus, predicted solar and lunar eclipses, calculated the movements of Venus with an error of only 14 seconds per year, and achieved amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture, painting and ceramics. They worshiped their gods and at the same time obeyed kings and priests, built temples and palaces under their leadership, performed ritual ceremonies, sacrificed themselves, and fought with their neighbors.
The Mayans created cities that were extraordinary in themselves, built only on muscle power. And for some reason, almost all cities of the classical period bear traces of violent destruction. Currently, more than 200 ruins of ancient cities are known. Complete list of famous Mayan cities Here.
In ancient times, the Mayans represented various groups that shared a common historical tradition. Due to this, the characteristics of their cultures were similar, their physical features were the same, and they spoke languages belonging to the same linguistic branch.
When studying the Mayan civilization, several periods are distinguished. Their names and chronology are as follows:
- Early Preclassic (about 2000 – 900 BC)
- Middle Preclassic (900 – 400 BC)
- Late Preclassic (400 BC – 250 AD)
- early classical (250 – 600 AD)
- late classical (600 – 900 AD)
- postclassical (900 – 1521 AD)
This rigorous scientific information in no way explains why the Mayan cities began to decline, their populations to decline, and civil strife to intensify.
But the processes that finally destroyed the great civilization, which took place during the colonial period, which lasted from 1521 to 1821, are completely obvious. Great humanists and Christians - not only did they introduce influenza, smallpox and measles - but formed their colonies on the American continent with fire and sword.
What previously did not benefit the Mayans - fragmentation and the absence of a single control center of the state - did not benefit the conquerors either. Each city was a separate warlike state, and more and more efforts had to be made to seize the territory.
And the Mayan cities were built with great skill and scope. Worth mentioning are Lamanai, Cahal Pech, El Mirador, Calakmul, Tikal, Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Copan. Some of these cities existed for more than a millennium. The ruins of each of them are a gift to archaeologists, historians and tourists.
Of great interest are the ideas of an extinct civilization about time and space. The cyclical time of the Maya, associated with natural and astronomical phenomena, was displayed in various calendars. According to one of the predictions, the next (last) cycle will end on December 22, 2012. The end of the cycle will be marked by a flood, after which this world will perish, a new universe will be born and a new cycle will begin... Well, we have every chance to verify the reliability of the Mayan predictions.
During the 1st - early 2nd millennium AD, the Maya people, speaking various languages of the Maya-Kiche family, settled over a vast territory, including the southern states of Mexico (Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo), the current countries of Belize and Guatemala and western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. These areas, located in the tropical zone, are distinguished by a variety of landscapes. In the mountainous south there is a chain of volcanoes, some of which are active. Once upon a time, powerful coniferous forests grew here on generous volcanic soils. In the north, the volcanoes give way to the limestone mountains of Alta Verapaz, which further north form the limestone Petén plateau, characterized by a hot and humid climate. Here the center of development of the Mayan civilization of the classical era was formed. The western part of the Petén plateau is drained by the Pasion and Usumacinta rivers, which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern part by rivers carrying water to the Caribbean Sea. North of the Petén plateau, humidity decreases with the height of forest cover. In the northern Yucatecan Plains, tropical rainforests give way to shrubby vegetation, and in the Puuc Hills the climate is so arid that in ancient times people settled here along the shores of karst lakes (cenotes) or stored water in underground reservoirs (chultun). On the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, the ancient Mayans mined salt and traded it with the inhabitants of the interior regions.
It was initially believed that the Maya lived in large areas of tropical lowlands in small groups, practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. With the rapid depletion of soils, this forced them to frequently change their settlement sites. The Mayans were peaceful and had a special interest in astronomy, and their cities with tall pyramids and stone buildings also served as priestly ceremonial centers where people gathered to observe unusual celestial phenomena. According to modern estimates, the ancient Mayan people numbered more than 3 million people. In the distant past, their country was the most densely populated tropical zone. The Mayans knew how to maintain soil fertility for several centuries and transform lands unsuitable for agriculture into plantations where they grew maize, beans, pumpkins, cotton, cocoa and various tropical fruits. Mayan writing was based on a strict phonetic and syntactic system. The decipherment of ancient hieroglyphic inscriptions has refuted previous ideas about the peaceful nature of the Mayans: many of these inscriptions report wars between city-states and captives sacrificed to the gods. The only thing that has not been revised from previous ideas is the exceptional interest of the ancient Mayans in the movement of celestial bodies. Their astronomers very accurately calculated the cycles of movement of the Sun, Moon, Venus and some constellations (in particular, the Milky Way). The Mayan civilization, in its characteristics, reveals commonality with the nearest ancient civilizations of the Mexican Highlands, as well as with the distant Mesopotamian, ancient Greek and ancient Chinese civilizations.
In the archaic (2000-1500 BC) and early formative periods (1500-1000 BC) of the preclassical era, in the lowlands of Guatemala, small semi-wandering tribes of hunters and gatherers lived, eating wild edible roots and fruits, as well as game and fish. They left behind only rare stone tools and a few settlements that definitely date back to this time. The Middle Formative Period (1000-400 BC) is the first relatively well-documented era of Mayan history. At this time, small agricultural settlements appeared, scattered in the jungle and along the banks of the rivers of the Peten plateau and in the north of Belize (Cuelho, Colha, Kashob). Archaeological evidence suggests that in this era the Mayans did not have pompous architecture, class divisions or centralized power. However, during the subsequent Late Formative Period of the Preclassic era (400 BC - 250 AD), major changes occurred in Mayan life. At this time, monumental structures were built - stylobotes, pyramids, ball courts, and rapid growth of cities was observed. Impressive architectural complexes are being built in cities such as Calakmul and Zibilchaltun in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico), El Mirador, Yashactun, Tikal, Nakbe and Tintal in the jungle of Peten (Guatemala), Cerros, Cuello, Lamanay and Nomul (Belize), Chalchuapa ( Salvador).
There was a rapid growth of settlements that arose during this period, such as Kashob in northern Belize. At the end of the late formative period, barter trade developed between settlements remote from each other. The most prized items are items made from jade and obsidian, sea shells and quetzal bird feathers. At this time, sharp flint tools and the so-called appeared for the first time. eccentrics are stone products of the most bizarre shape, sometimes in the form of a trident or the profile of a human face. At the same time, the practice of consecrating buildings and arranging hiding places where jade products and other valuables were placed was developed. During the subsequent Early Classic period (250-600 AD) of the Classical era, Mayan society developed into a system of rival city-states, each with its own royal dynasty. These political entities revealed commonality both in the system of government and in culture (language, writing, astronomical knowledge, calendar). The beginning of the early classical period approximately coincides with one of the oldest dates recorded on the stela of the city of Tikal - 292 AD, which, in accordance with the so-called. The "long count of the Maya" is expressed in numbers 8.12.14.8.5. The possessions of individual city-states of the classical era extended on average 2000 square meters. km, and some cities, such as Tikal or Calakmul, controlled significantly larger territories.
The political and cultural centers of each state were cities with magnificent buildings, the architecture of which represented local or zonal variations of the general style of Mayan architecture. The buildings were located around a vast rectangular central square. Their facades were usually decorated with masks of the main gods and mythological characters, carved from stone or made using relief techniques. The walls of long narrow rooms inside buildings were often painted with frescoes depicting rituals, holidays, and military scenes. Window lintels, lintels, palace staircases, as well as free-standing steles were covered with hieroglyphic texts, sometimes interspersed with portraits, telling about the deeds of the rulers. On lintel 26, in Yaxchilan, the ruler's wife is depicted helping her husband put on military regalia. In the center of Mayan cities of the classical era, pyramids rose up to 15 m high. These structures often served as tombs for revered people, so kings and priests practiced rituals here with the goal of establishing a magical connection with the spirits of their ancestors.
The ritual ball game was important in the Mayan religion. Almost every major Mayan settlement had one or more similar sites. It is, as a rule, a small rectangular field, on the sides of which there are pyramidal platforms from which the priests watched the ritual. Meanwhile, there was a cult of the game. In the Popol Vuh, an invaluable collection of Mayan myths, the ball game is mentioned as a game of the gods: the death deities Bolon Tiku (or as they are called in the text, the Lords of Xibalba, i.e. the underworld) and two brothers of the demigod Hun competed in it. Ahpu and Xbalanque. Thus, the players initiated on stage one of the episodes of the struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, masculine and feminine, snake and jaguar. The Mayan ball game, like similar games of other peoples of Mesoamerica, contained elements of violence and cruelty - it ended with human sacrifice, for which it was started, and the playing fields were framed with stakes with human skulls.
Most northern cities built in the Postclassic era (950-1500) lasted less than 300 years, with the exception of Chichen Itza, which survived until the 13th century. This city shows architectural similarities to Tula, founded by the Toltecs around 900, suggesting that Chichen Itza served as an outpost or was an ally of the warlike Toltecs. The name of the city is derived from the Mayan words "chi" ("mouth") and "itsa" ("wall"), but its architecture is in the so-called. Puuc style, violates the classical Mayan canons. For example, stone roofs of buildings are supported on flat beams rather than on stepped vaults. Some stone carvings depict Mayan and Toltec warriors together in battle scenes. Perhaps the Toltecs captured this city and over time turned it into a prosperous state. During the Postclassic period (1200-1450), Chichen Itza was for a time part of a political alliance with nearby Uxmal and Mayapan, known as the League of Mayapan. However, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the League had collapsed, and Chichen Itza, like the cities of the classical era, was swallowed up by the jungle. In the Postclassic era, maritime trade developed, thanks to which ports emerged on the coast of Yucatan and nearby islands, for example, Tulum or a settlement on the island of Cozumel. During the Late Postclassic period, the Mayans traded slaves, cotton, and bird feathers with the Aztecs.
According to Mayan mythology, the world was created and destroyed twice before the third, modern era began, which began in European terms on August 13, 3114 BC. From this date, time was counted in two chronology systems - the so-called. long count and calendar circle. The long account was based on a 360-day annual cycle called tun, divided into 18 months of 20 days each. The Mayans used a base-20 rather than a decimal counting system, and the unit of chronology was 20 years (katun). Twenty katuns (i.e. four centuries) made up a baktun. The Mayans simultaneously used two calendar time systems - a 260-day and a 365-day annual cycle. These systems coincided every 18,980 days, or every 52 (365-day) years, marking an important milestone at the end of one and the beginning of a new time cycle. The ancient Mayans calculated time forward to 4772, when, in their opinion, the end of the current era would come and the Universe would once again be destroyed.
The families of the rulers were entrusted with the obligation to perform the rite of bloodletting at every important event in the life of the city-states, be it the consecration of new buildings, the onset of the sowing season, the beginning or end of a military campaign. According to Mayan mythology, human blood nourished and strengthened the gods, who, in turn, gave strength to people. It was believed that the blood of the tongue, earlobes and genitals had the greatest magical power. During the bloodletting ceremony, thousands of people gathered in the central square of the city, including dancers, musicians, warriors and nobles. At the climax of the ceremonial action, the ruler appeared, often with his wife, and with a plant thorn or an obsidian knife he bled himself, making a cut on the penis. At the same time, the ruler's wife pierced her tongue. After this, they passed a rough agave rope through the wounds to increase the bleeding. Blood dripped onto strips of paper, which were then burned in the fire. Due to blood loss, as well as under the influence of drugs, fasting and other factors, ritual participants saw images of gods and ancestors in puffs of smoke.
Mayan society was built on the model of patriarchy: power and leadership in the family passed from father to son or brother. Classic Maya society was highly stratified. A clear division into social strata was observed in Tikal in the 8th century. At the very top of the social ladder were the ruler and his immediate relatives. Next came the highest and middle hereditary nobility, who had varying degrees of power, followed by retinues, artisans, architects of various ranks and status, below were rich but humble landowners, then simple communal farmers, and on the last steps were orphans and slaves . Although these groups were in contact with each other, they lived in separate city neighborhoods, had special duties and privileges, and cultivated their own customs.
The ancient Mayans did not know the technology of metal smelting. They made tools mainly from stone, but also from wood and shells. With these tools, farmers cut down forests, plowed, sowed, and harvested crops. The Mayans did not even know the potter's wheel. When making ceramic products, they rolled clay into thin flagella and placed them one on top of the other or molded clay plates. Ceramics were fired not in kilns, but on open fires. Both commoners and aristocrats were engaged in pottery. The latter painted vessels with scenes from mythology or palace life.
Until now, the disappearance of the Mayan civilization is a subject of debate among researchers. At the same time, there are two main points of view regarding the disappearance of the Mayan civilization - ecological and non-ecological hypotheses.
Ecological hypothesis based on the balance of the relationship between man and nature. Over time, the balance has been upset: an ever-growing population faces the problem of a lack of quality soil suitable for agriculture, as well as a shortage of drinking water. The ecological extinction hypothesis of the Maya was formulated in 1921 by O. F. Cook.
Non-ecological hypothesis covers theories of various kinds, from conquest and pestilence to climate change and other catastrophes. The version of the Mayan conquest is supported by archaeological finds of objects that belonged to another people of medieval Central America - the Toltecs. However, most researchers doubt the correctness of this version. The assumption that the cause of the crisis of the Mayan civilization was climate change, and especially drought, is expressed by geologist Gerald Haug, who studies climate change. Also, some scientists associate the collapse of the Mayan civilization with the end of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico. Some scholars believe that after Teotihuacan was abandoned, creating a power vacuum that also affected Yucatan, the Mayans were unable to fill this vacuum, which ultimately led to the decline of civilization.
In 1517, the Spaniards appeared in Yucatan under the leadership of Hernandez de Cordoba. The Spanish introduced diseases from the Old World that were previously unknown to the Mayans, including smallpox, influenza, and measles. In 1528, colonists under the leadership of Francisco de Montejo begin the conquest of northern Yucatan. However, due to geographical and political disunity, it would take the Spaniards about 170 years to completely subjugate the region. In 1697, the last independent Mayan city of Tayasal was submitted to Spain. Thus ended one of the most interesting civilizations of ancient Mesoamerica.
Mayan cities:
Guatemala: Aguateca - Balberta - Gumarkah - Dos Pilas - Ichimche - Ishkun - Yaxha - Kaminaljuyu - Cancuen - Quirigua - La Corona - Machaquila - Misco Viejo - Naachtun - Nakbe - Naranjo - Piedras Negras - Saculeu - San Bartolo - Ceibal - Cival - Tayasal - Takalik Abah - Tikal - Toposhte - Huaxactun - El Baul - El Mirador - El Peru
Mexico: Akanmul - Akanseh - Balamku - Becan - Bonampak - Ichpich - Yaxchilan - Kabah - Calakmul - Coba - Comalcalco - Kohunlich - Labna - Mayapan - Mani - Nokuchich - Oshkintok - Palenque - Rio Bec - Sayil - Sakpeten - Santa Rosa Stampak - Tancah - Tonina - Tulum - Uxmal - Haina - Tsibilchaltun - Chacmultun - Chacchoben - Chikanna - Chinkultik - Chichen Itza - Chunchukmil - Shkipche - Xpujil - Ek Balam - Edzna
Belize: Altun Ha - Karakol - Kahal Pech - Kueyo - Lamanai - Lubaantun - Nim Li Punit - Xunantunich
Honduras: Copan – El Puente
Salvador: San Andres - Tazumal - Hoya de Seren
Aztec Civilization
Aztecs (asteki) (self-identified) mē
xihcah) - Indian people in central Mexico. Number of over 1.5 million people. The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had a rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec Empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Spanish). Texcoco), where the city of Mexico is now located.
In Nahuatl, the native language of the Aztecs, the word “Aztec” literally means “someone from Aztlan,” a mythical place located somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term encompassing peoples related by trade, custom, religion, and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt and adopted by 19th-century Mexican scholars as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian populations.
The Aztecs themselves called themselves “mexica”, or “tenochka” and “tlaltelolca” - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “meshika” (ast. Mexico, from which, in fact, the word “Mexico” comes), then very different versions of its etymology are expressed - the word “Sun”, in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader - Mexitli (Mexitli, Mextli), a type of algae growing in Lake Texcoco.
The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua because of its common language. According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley, around Lake Texcoco, from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes is known for sure - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from.
Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(“Nahuatl speakers”, from the word “tlaca” meaning “person”). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli, which means “left-handed hummingbird.” There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that a new house should be founded in such a place. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.
So, in 1256, the Aztecs stopped on a rock washed by a spring and surrounded by thickets aueuete. This was Chapultepec, then a forest. Lake Texcoco stretched out before them.
By the time the Aztecs arrived, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided between coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme authority of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tlatelolco (Tlaltelolco). Tenochtitlan (city of Tenocha) was founded in 1325. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.
According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples - mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they may have confused with the older civilization of Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of all culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.
The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui Ollin, the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds” (in Russian usually translated “all in buboes”; the smallest and humblest god who suffered from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (literally - “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.
Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, so he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.
The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was quite ethnically diverse; it was more of a unified system of tribute collection than a unified system of government. Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was carried out even with enemy cities. The only people to defeat the Aztecs, the Purépecha, were the main producers of copper axes.
The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities.
In Mesoamerica, there were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat, and even visit the restroom every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers constantly plied along these routes ( Painani), keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.
The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest population explosions - the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people.
The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan, Europeans usually call the Aztec emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of the emperor is Huey Tlatoani (Act. HueyTlahtoani) roughly translates to "Great Orator". Tlatocque (at. tlatoque- “orators”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuitzotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial one, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.
From 1397 to 1487, the empire was led by Tlacaelel ( Tlahcaé
lel from Nahuatl - “brave heart”). He could become tlatoani, but chose to remain in the shadow of the jaguar's mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew tlatoani Itzcoatl and brother of Chimalpopoca and Motecuzoma Ilhuicamina, and bore the title "Cihuacoatl" (after the goddess Chihuacoatl, the equivalent of an advisor). As it is written in Ramirez's manuscript: “what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as quickly as possible.” He was a tough reformer, he created a new structure for governing the country, ordered the burning of most Aztec books, claiming that they were all lies, and rewrote the history of the Aztecs. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion, placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (perhaps exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of “flower wars” and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continued to move across the sky.
By the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed on the lands of Guatemala. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.
Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: the macehualli, or peasantry, and the pilli, or nobles. Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took captives in war could become permanent warriors, and over time, military glory and the spoils of war made them pilli. Once an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekihua, and he could achieve the rank of Eagle or Jaguar. Later he could gain rank tlacateccatl or tlacochcalcatl. To become tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners. When a young man came of age, he did not cut his hair until he captured his first captive. Sometimes two or three young men united for this purpose, then they were called yak. If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became masehualli. It was considered a disgrace to be a warrior with long hair, signifying the absence of prisoners, but there were also those who preferred to be macehualli.
The rich spoils of war led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of the traditional Aztec society - post office, or traders. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; the Poste were also good spies. The warriors despised them, however, one way or another, they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.
Slaves, or tlacotin, also formed an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had many similarities with the slavery of classical antiquity. Firstly, slavery was personal, not inherited, the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property, and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children with their owners, or were married to their owners.
Typically, upon the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The remaining slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.
An Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered man at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves.
In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unlucky gamblers and old "auini" - courtesans or prostitutes.
Although it was possible to drink pulque, a fermented drink with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk before reaching the age of sixty. Violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.
As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tlachtli, an Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", where the Spanish "ule" comes from. hule), meaning rubber.
According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and playing it was characterized by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring located high enough without causing physical harm to oneself. A good "incentive" to play was the fact that members of the losing team were sacrificed.
Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips. The goal of the game was to throw the ball through a stone ring. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take away the audience's blankets, so victory was accompanied by running, screaming and laughter. People bet on the results of the game. The poor could stake their food, the pillis could stake their wealth, the "tekutli" ( owners) could put their concubines or even cities on the line, and those who had nothing put their freedom on the line and risked becoming slaves.
The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or captain of the winning team (however, according to other sources - the captain and players of the losing team).
In Mesoamerica and South America, during the heyday of the Aztec state, sacrifices were widespread; however, the Aztecs practiced them on a special scale, sacrificing people on each of the 18 holidays of their sacred calendar.
It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed. Animal sacrifices were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things - they broke them in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced; during special ceremonies, people inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting, and wore special thorns that constantly wounded the body.
Blood was central to Mesoamerican cultures. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)
All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human sacrifice. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the top platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim’s stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim’s heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it away. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in cases of prisoners. If faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways - the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tzompantli, and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as gifts to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of the remains discovered in a large temple complex.
There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It’s difficult to keep track of the measure here. Aztec chronicles describe how some 84,400 captives were sacrificed over four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the city's population of 120,000 people was able to capture, house and dispose of so many captives, especially considering the fact that Ahuizotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of casualties could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for war propaganda purposes.
The Aztecs led the so-called «
flower wars »
(Spanish) guerrasfloridas) - special raids to capture captives, to perform sacrifices, which they called neshtlahualli - this was a kind of “debt payment to the gods” so that the sun could shine during the next 52-year cycle. The human soul-heart and soul-blood are necessary so that the world does not collapse - this idea underlay the practice of capturing people in subjugated lands, and the population was ordered to meet warriors with flowers in their hands (one of the reasons that gave the name “flower wars”).
It is not known whether the Aztecs performed sacrifices before they came to the Anahuac Valley, or whether they absorbed this custom as they absorbed many other customs and cultures. The sacrifices were originally dedicated to Xipe Totec, a northern Mesoamerican deity. Aztec records state that human sacrifice began during the reign of Tisoc. During the reign of Tlacaelel, human sacrifice became an integral part of Aztec culture, not only for religious but also for political reasons.
There is little information regarding Aztec cannibalism. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquest, none of which involve widespread ritual cannibalism. Typical reports of Aztec cannibalism:
Cortez writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.
Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards invited the Aztecs to surrender because they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs invited the Spaniards to attack, only to be captured and eaten.
In Bernardino de Sahagún's books there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened Aztec traders.
In the annals of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the victim's palms was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced with turkey.
In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as gifts to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, since it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced with turkey or simply thrown away.
Mochica Civilization
Among the early Peruvian civilizations, the Mochica culture (beginning and mid-1st millennium AD) deserves close attention. The section of the northern coast that constituted the Mochica territory is a hilly desert 30-40 km wide, bounded by the ocean and mountains, cut at intervals of 15-30 km by the valleys of small rivers originating in the Cordillera ranges. Two such valleys, Moche and Chicama, formed the core of the Mochica lands. The development of the Mochica culture covers five periods: 1-2 - the era of formation, 3 - the time of its rapid development, 4 - heyday, 5 - decline. The era from the end of the 2nd century to the beginning of the 4th (approximately 2nd - 5th centuries AD) was a time of radical restructuring of Mochic society, as evidenced by the widespread distribution of copper tools, the achievement of technological excellence in the production of ceramics, the construction of monumental complexes, the walls of which later they began to decorate with narrative paintings, the flowering of the art of vase painting and sculptural representation of the human face, and finally, the emergence of that socially stratified pantheon of deities, which serves as the object of this study. In the period of the 3rd or from the end of the 2nd centuries, the expansion of the Mochica began in the valleys south of the Moche (in Viru - the center of the Gallinazo culture, Santo, Nepeño), which was apparently expressed in the establishment of control over the local population (in Viru), then in mass migration (in Santa). During the 5th century, these lands were lost again.
The origins of Mochika remain unclear, but the Salinar culture and the traditions of earlier antiquities such as Kupisnike played a significant role in its development. Appearing on the eve of our era, Mochica existed until the 7th century, reaching its peak in the 3rd – 6th centuries. Its economic basis was highly developed irrigation agriculture. Natural fertilizers were widely used, primarily guano, which was mined on the coastal islands. The main agricultural tool was a digging stick made of hard wood with a long blade, sometimes copper. Agriculture was supplemented by the breeding of llamas and guinea pigs. Fishing and marine industries have traditionally played a major role in the economy. Small reed boats were used for fishing and sailing to offshore islands and along the coast.
The creators of the Mochica culture were excellent metallurgists and jewelers. At least already in the 2nd century. AD they melted copper, alloyed it with gold and silver. Probably, the technique of casting from a lost wax model and gilding of products by etching was known. Metal was used both for making jewelry and luxury items, and in everyday life (needles, awls, spindle whorls, fish hooks, etc.). In general, the metallurgy and metalworking of the Mochica culture are close to the Colombian tradition.
Both huge pyramids and dwellings were built from rectangular mud bricks - adobes. On the bricks of the large pyramids of the Moche Valley, geometric imprints were discovered, which are interpreted as signs of the communities that carried out labor duties in the construction of the monumental structures of the Moche capital. The walls of temple buildings were covered with frescoes of mythological content. Images of mythical characters and scenes are found on objects made of metal and wood, on textiles and in huge quantities on ceramics.
The dead were buried in narrow pits, covered with rods and adobe. The dead were laid on their backs, wrapped in mats. Ordinary burials contained several vessels and other things. Along with such burials, richer ones are also known, for example, the burial of a “warrior-priest” in the Viru Valley, where an elderly man in a copper mask was buried, accompanied by the remains of a child, two women and a man. The grave contained a huge number of vessels, wooden staffs with carved inlaid pommels, feather items, headdresses and other items.
On the northern outskirts of the Mochic territory, in Sipan (Lambaeque Valley), the burial of a ruler was found, made between the middle of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. In the thickness of the adobe platform on which the temple buildings once stood, a rectangular grave was discovered, in which there was a wooden coffin with the remains of a man lying on his back. In his hands he held something like a golden scepter. The lower part of the face was covered with a golden mask, the body was wrapped in cloth. Below and above him there was a huge number of things of a prestigious nature - headdresses, gold jewelry with inlay, feather jewelry, precious shells, gold and bronze plates that replaced armor, gold standards, etc. The ruler was accompanied by two women and several men. A dog was buried with one of them. Countless ceramic vessels were discovered in the tomb.
In the same platform, another grave was found, plundered by professional grave robbers - huaqueros. It produces a number of magnificent pieces of jewelry. The presence of rich burials was also noted in the pyramids of the Moche Valley.
The center around which the Mochic association formed at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD was the Moche and Chicama valleys, although Early Mochic materials were also found further north, in the Piura valley. In the 2nd-3rd centuries, the construction of pyramids began in the Moche Valley. Judging by the iconography and archaeological data, by the middle of the 1st millennium, the Mochica had already formed a state. It was at this time that its expansion to the south began, first to the Viru and Santa valleys, and in the 6th century, and further, to the Nepeña valley. In the following valleys - Casma and Culebras - there are no materials from the Mochica culture, but they were discovered even further south, in the Huarmey valley. Around the same time, the cultural territory expanded to the north, up to the Leche Valley.
In the 7th century, the Mochica civilization declines, and the southern valleys fall out of its control. It is possible that at that time there were two associations: a northern one with a center in Pampa Grande and a southern one, the capital of which was located on the site of the Galindo settlement, in the middle reaches of the Moche River. At the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century, as a result of the Inca invasion, the Mochica culture was conquered and ceased to exist.
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It is very extensive and, as a result, has a different name for the Indian tribes living on open lands. There are many of them, although European sailors used only one term for the native inhabitants of America - Indians.
Columbus's fallacy and consequences
Over time, the mistake became clear: that the indigenous people are the aborigines of America. Before European colonization began in the 15th century, residents arrived in various stages of communal-tribal system. Some tribes were dominated by the patrilineal family, while others were dominated by matriarchy.
The level of development primarily depended on location and climatic conditions. In the process that followed, European countries used only the common name of Indian tribes for a whole group of culturally related tribes. Below we will consider some of them in detail.
Specialization and life of American Indians
It is very noteworthy that the American Indians made various ceramic products. This tradition began long before European contact. Several technologies were used in manual work.
Methods such as modeling using a frame and shape, molding with a spatula, clay cord modeling, and even sculptural modeling were used. A distinctive feature of the Indians was the production of masks, clay figurines and ritual objects.
The names of the Indian tribes are quite different, because they spoke different languages and had practically no written language. There are many nationalities in America. Let's look at the most famous of them.
The names of the Indian tribes and their role in American history
We will look at some of the most famous Hurons, Iroquois, Apaches, Mohicans, Incas, Mayans and Aztecs. Some of them were at a fairly low level of development, while others were impressively highly developed societies, the level of which cannot be simply defined by the word “tribe” with such extensive knowledge and architecture.
The Aztecs maintained old traditions before the Spanish conquest. Their number was about 60 thousand. The main activities were hunting and fishing. In addition, the tribe was divided into several clans with officials. Tribute was withdrawn from subject cities.
The Aztecs were distinguished by the fact that they maintained a fairly strict centralized control and hierarchical structure. At the highest level stood the emperor and priests, and at the lowest were slaves. The Aztecs also used the death penalty and human sacrifice.
Highly developed Inca society
The most mysterious tribe of the Incas belonged to the largest ancient civilization. The tribe lived at an altitude of 4.5 thousand meters in Colombia. This ancient state existed since XI to XVI centuries AD.
It included the entire territory of the states of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. As well as parts of modern Argentina, Colombia and Chile, despite the fact that in 1533 the empire had already lost most of its territories. Until 1572, the clan was able to withstand the attacks of the conquistadors, who were very interested in new lands.
Inca society was dominated by terrace farming. It was a fairly highly developed society that used sewers and created an irrigation system.
Today, many historians are interested in the question of why and where such a highly developed tribe disappeared.
"Inheritance" from the Indian tribes of America
Undoubtedly, it is clear that the American Indians made a serious contribution to the development of world civilization. Europeans borrowed the cultivation and cultivation of corn and sunflowers, as well as some vegetable crops: potatoes, tomatoes, peppers. In addition, legumes, cocoa fruits and tobacco were imported. We got all this from the Indians.
It was these crops that once helped reduce hunger in Eurasia. Corn subsequently became an indispensable feed source for livestock farming. We owe many of the dishes on our table to the Indians and Columbus, who brought the “curiosities” of that time to Europe.
The most famous civilizations of ancient America, which every educated person has heard of, are the Mayans, Incas and Aztecs. These peoples inhabited the territories of central Mexico (Aztecs), southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, western Honduras (Mayans) and western southern (Inca). The grandiose architectural structures of these ancient civilizations have survived to this day. The most famous of them are the pyramids of the American Mayan and Aztec tribes. The Incas, according to scientists, did not build pyramids, although they were able to erect structures of quite impressive size (such as the Sacsayhuaman fortress).
The Mayan and Aztec peoples inhabited America at different times. The Mayan civilization flourished in the 7th - 8th centuries, and the Aztecs in the 14th - 15th centuries. But both of these peoples were distinguished by a high level of development. They built large cities, used writing, and shipping was developed. The calendars of those times surprise with their accuracy. Religion occupied a special place among the Mayan and Aztec peoples. It is not without reason that the pyramids that they erected were used for various religious rites.
The exact age of the Mayan pyramids is unknown. These structures are made of rough-hewn stones, which are held together with a fairly strong mortar.
The slopes of the pyramids are steps, i.e. They were built in stages - on each platform the next, smaller one, was built. This process was quite lengthy.
One of the most famous pyramids is Kukulkan, named after the main god in the mythologies of the Mayan and Toltec tribes, who was depicted as a snake with a human head. It is located in the ancient city of Chichen Itza (Yucatan Peninsula). This structure is 25 meters high and has 9 platforms. The number 9 is not accidental; it symbolizes the regions of the kingdom of the dead. The pyramid is crowned by a temple. There are wide staircases on four sides, each of them has 91 steps, for a total of 364, which corresponds to the number of days in a year. The stairs themselves are divided into 18 flights - in the Mayan calendar there were exactly this number of months. The Pyramid of Kukulkan has four sides clearly facing south, north, west and east.
This pyramid is very popular among tourists. The thing is that twice a year a very unusual phenomenon can be observed on its surface. On the days of the equinox at 17:00, a huge image of a serpent begins to appear on the north side of the pyramid, becoming increasingly clear. This effect is achieved due to the sun's rays, and the illusion lasts about 3 hours.
Another pyramid was built in the city of Chichen Itza, the base of which measures 40 x 40 meters.
Another famous Mayan structure is . It is located in the ancient city of Palenque, Guatemala. The pyramid got its name because of the huge number of different designs and hieroglyphs. Scientists are still trying to unravel the meaning of these inscriptions. Only in this pyramid was a tomb with a sarcophagus discovered, the surface of which was also covered with drawings and inscriptions. Before this discovery, it was believed that the Mayans did not use pyramids for burials. The remains of a man were discovered in the sarcophagus, who, apparently, occupied a high position in society.
There is another ancient city on the Yucatan Peninsula - Uxmal. This is where the famous . This is one of the most impressive buildings that has been left to us as a legacy from the Mayan tribes. The 38 m tall pyramid has a flat top. Its corners are rounded. This structure was built over many years. Archaeological research has shown that construction lasted from the sixth to the tenth centuries. There are 5 temples inside the pyramid - according to the number of construction stages.
The most famous Aztec pyramids
Perhaps the most impressive building of the Aztecs is pyramid of the sun, located on the site of the ancient city of Teotihuacan, near modern Mexico City. It ranks third in the world among ancient structures, ahead only of the Pyramid of Cholula, from Toltec times, and the Pyramid of Cheops, which is located in Egypt, near Cairo.
The Pyramid of the Sun previously rose 71 m high (currently 64.5 m), and the perimeter of the base of this grandiose structure is 893 m. About 3 million tons of stones were required for its construction. 300 years after the pyramid was built, a temple was erected on its top, which was destroyed even before the discovery of the city of Teotihuacan by the Spanish conquerors. Currently, many tourists visit the Pyramid of the Sun. To climb to the very top, you have to overcome a difficult climb of 248 steps, which are distinguished by their steepness. But despite all the difficulties, there are many who want to rise to the very top. After all, if you believe the legends, this is where the so-called “place of power” is located. Thanks to positive energy flows, a person can find harmony and peace of mind.
In the north of Teotihuacan is . This is smaller than the Pyramid of the Sun - its height is 42 m. This five-tier pyramid is located on a small hill. A fairly wide staircase leads to the top - it is a continuation of the path called the Road of the Dead. During archaeological excavations in the Pyramid of the Moon, many remains and burials were discovered. Presumably, various rituals were performed on top of this structure.
Teotihuacan is home to the Citadel, a square that got its name thanks to the Spaniards. It is here that the Temple of the Feathered Serpent is located - a building built in the form of a pyramid. Its walls were decorated with stone ornaments that represented the heads of feathered snakes - from the western part they are well preserved to this day. The remains of animals that were sacrificed during rituals were discovered within the walls of this temple.
The pyramids of the American Mayan and Aztec tribes have not yet been fully studied. The mysteries associated with these structures will continue to attract scientists from all over the world for a long time.
When we hear the concepts “Inca”, “Maya” or “Aztec”, we are mentally transported overseas, to the mountains and jungles of the American continent. It was there that these Indian tribes, little known to mankind, lived - the creators of the civilization of the Incas, Aztecs and Mayans, about whom we will briefly talk further. From history we only know about them that they were skilled craftsmen. The Incas built large cities connected by roads that looked like cars were racing along them. The pyramids were built like the Egyptian ones, but according to local religious views. Irrigation canals made it possible to feed the people with their own agricultural products.
The Incas created calendars, chronology and writing, had an observatory and were well oriented by the stars. And suddenly, overnight, all civilizations disappeared. Many scientists are working to unravel the causes of a rather strange, even from the standpoint of modern science, socio-demographic phenomenon. First, let's introduce the Inca civilization in a brief description.
Ancient Incas
If you look at the geographical map of the South American continent, you will notice its vertical division by the Andes mountains. To the east of the mountains lies the Pacific Ocean. This area, closer to the north, was chosen by the ancient Indian tribe of the Incas, pronounced “Quechua” in their language, in the 11th – 15th centuries. In such a short period, on a certain scale, it is difficult to create a unique and one of the early class civilizations of Mesoamerica. The Incas succeeded at this, perhaps with some outside help.
It stretched for five thousand kilometers from north to south - this is exactly half the length of the Russian Federation. It included the territories, in whole or in part, of eight modern Latin American countries. These regions were inhabited by about twenty million people.
Archaeologists say: Quechua culture did not begin out of nowhere. It has been proven that a significant part either came to the Quechua from outside, or they settled on foreign territory and appropriated the achievements of previous civilizations.
The Incas were good warriors and did not hesitate to conquer new territories. From the Mochica culture and the Kari state they could adopt the technology of making colored ceramics, laying canals in the fields, and from Nazca - the construction of underground water pipelines. The list goes on.
What the Quechuas themselves excelled at was stone-cutting. The blocks for the buildings were cut so beautifully that no binding material was required when laying them. The pinnacle of architecture is a group of temples under the general name of the Golden Court with the temple of the Sun God. The supreme rulers of the Quechuas simply adored gold; the emperor’s palaces were covered with it from floor to ceiling. The Spanish conquistadors melted down all this luxury and transported it home in ingots. Only the majestic pyramids on the lifeless land remind of past greatness.
Ancient Mayans
The Mayans had everything that characterized ancient civilizations, except the wheel and metal tools. Tools were made of high quality from strong stone, even for cutting wood.
The Mayans skillfully erected buildings using arched ceilings, rare for those times, and knowledge of geometry helped to correctly lay irrigation canals. They were the first to know how to get cement. Their surgeons performed operations with scalpels made of frozen glass.
Like the Incas (Quechua), the Mayans had great knowledge about space and the stars. But hardly any of them could own spacecraft. But then why did they need a domed observatory tower that has survived to this day? The building is positioned so that it is better to navigate the orbit of the brightest planet. Just to create a calendar aimed at this planet? Obviously there were other plans. It’s not for nothing that there are mysterious images of flying people on the rocks.
There is also this version of the origin of the Mayans: perhaps they sailed to America on ships from another continent. Like the Incas, the Mayans used the experience of a more developed civilization - the Olmecs, who appeared from nowhere on the American continent. For example, their experience of making drinks from a substance similar to chocolate, and in religion they adopted deities in the form of animals.
The Mayans disappeared in the 10th century AD. The Incas, Mayans, and Olmecs suffered the same fate - their civilizations ceased to exist in their prime. There are two popular versions of the Mayan demise: ecology and conquest. The second is supported by artifacts from the presence of other tribes in the territory where the Mayans lived.
Ancient Aztecs
Up to a dozen tribes lived on the fertile lands of the Valley of Mexico for centuries. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Tepanec tribe appeared there. Warlike, incredibly cruel, it conquered all other tribes. Their allies in the seizure of territories were a small tribe of tenochki.
These were the Aztecs. Neighboring tribes called them by this name. The Aztecs are driven out by other tribes to a deserted island. And from here the power of the Aztecs spread over the entire valley of Mexico, where up to ten million people already lived. They traded with everyone who accepted them. Thousands of people lived in cities. The state has grown to unprecedented proportions.
Introduction
The origins of ancient American civilizations have always been controversial. They were considered the descendants of the Egyptians, Trojans and even the Carthaginians, and one hypothesis names the ten disappeared tribes of Israel among the ancestors of the Indians. In fact, the ancestors of the Indians came from Siberia. In pursuit of game, they crossed the Bering Strait on the ice. Eleven thousand years ago they reached the southern tip of South America. High-level cultures developed in parts of Central America (now mostly modern Mexico and Guatemala), as well as in the central Andes (now Peru and the Bolivian plateau region).
The history of state and law of ancient American civilizations is usually divided into the following categories:
- ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica
- and the ancient states of South America
Mesoamerica is the territory between South and North America. The first evidence of the appearance of signs of dimestication (domestication) of maize in Mexico dates back to the 5th century BC. In the 4th millennium BC. Maize farming spreads in the Teucana Valley. The population in the Teukana Valley finally switched to a sedentary lifestyle in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.
South America - divided into:
- the Andes region (from Colombia to Chile), which includes the Inca culture of Peru;
- Rainforest habitat, mainly occupied by the Amazon jungle; Guyana adjoins it;
- Great Chaco;
- Southern range, stretching to Tierra del Fuego.
The Andean region of the ancient period can be represented as follows. People settled in the high Andean valleys ten thousand years ago. Hunting was not developed; people obtained protein from fishing. Agricultural culture arose earlier than transhumance. An irrigation system is created and a state is created that distributes water. The Chavin culture emerges on the northern plateau. The main deity of their cult, the jaguar or puma, was popular in the Andean region for five hundred years.
Around 300 AD traces of the unity of the Andean region are disappearing, but agriculture is developing: new plant species are being cultivated, terrace farming is being practiced.
Around 200 AD, the culture, a transitional period, reaches its peak. They are theocratic, the main deity is a feline, human sacrifices are made to the gods, the child’s skull is deformed from birth, and then throughout life, the skull is repeatedly trepanned; the same procedure is carried out after death; Enemy skulls are collected as trophies.
The Mochica culture erected huge temples, the most famous of which are two pyramids called the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. The coastal Nazca culture, contemporary with the Mochica culture, left behind many flattened skulls, painted and strung in garlands to make them easier to transport. On the rocks of the Palpa valley, the Nazcas created huge drawings reflecting the system of astronomical knowledge and intended for contemplation from above by the deity. By the end of this period, the megalithic civilization of Tiahuanaco (Bolivia) exerts the same cultural influence on the peoples inhabiting the Andes as the Chavin culture had in an earlier era.
Around 1000 AD A socio-political system reminiscent of Western feudalism is established in the Andes. In the north, the kingdom of Chimu arises, which subjugates many valleys, each of which builds its own urban center.
Chapter 1. Socio-political system of ancient America
civilization
§1. Social order
Many tribes and peoples lived in America. The Mayans, Aztecs and Incas stood higher than other peoples in terms of economic development and culture.
People Mayan
inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America. The heyday of the Mayan civilization occurred approximately in the 3rd-9th centuries, when the Mayan state included the territory of today's Guatemala, part of Mexico, etc.
There was social stratification in Mayan society. The nobility, who owned the wealth acquired by trade, and the simple peasants who worked the land were separated by a deep chasm. The land belonged to the communities; The community allocated a plot cleared of forest to each family. Nobles and priests dominated over ordinary community members. There were also slaves from captives and debtors.
In the 1st century The Mayans developed city-states. At the head of each city was a “great man” - a ruler who passed on power by inheritance. He collected taxes from the population of the area.
The nobility lived in the center of the city in stone palaces, and on the outskirts, “low people” - peasants and artisans - settled in huts. The nobility also differed in appearance. Aristocrats admired their long, flat foreheads; They used special tablets to squeeze the heads of their children to deform their skulls.
By the time the Spanish arrived, civil war had nearly destroyed the Mayan civilization. Some cities are overgrown with forest. The Spaniards discovered fortified cities with preserved stone buildings, market squares and temples.
The Mayans were influenced by the Olmecs and some researchers believe that they are one people.
The social organization of the Maya was clan-fratrical structures. The rulers of the kingdoms bore the title of Ahav, and the centers subordinate to them were ruled by Sahals, who came from local clans.
A special group was made up of priests who performed various functions: some were ideologists who claimed power, others were shamans, scientists and healers. The Mayans had hieroglyphic writing that was partially deciphered, a complex and accurate calendar, architecture and sculpture, dramatic art with the sacrifice of the main character. The high priest was subordinate to the haksh uinik.
Wars had the character of nabogs for ruin and the capture of prisoners, they were constantly waged, strengthening one or the other city.
There is almost no dependent population. The basis of society was made up of free community members. They participated in public works and military campaigns when they were free. The basis of the economy is slash-and-burn communal farming with changing plots.
A new type of political-territorial formation is gradually being formed: a confederation of cities with a distinguished capital. Domestic slavery and the sacrifice of slaves and the slave trade arise.
In the 13th century came to the territory of what is now Mexico from the north Aztecs
and founded the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs are an Indian people who inhabited the territory of Central America. In the 15th century they conquered other territories. By 1520, the Aztec empire stretched from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic coast, from the deserts in the north to the settlements of the Mayan Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula in the south.
The Aztec civilization was considered one of the most prosperous. The empire of 15 million people was administered with a high degree of efficiency.
The head of the state was a hereditary ruler. High positions were occupied by noble people and received salaries for their service. Everything needed was taken from the controlled territories.
The Aztecs subjugated neighboring tribes, forced them to pay heavy tribute and provide slaves. Although the tribes were still ruled by local chiefs, Aztec governors and tribute collectors lived in the main cities.
Life in the state proceeded according to rituals, the course of which was determined by two calendars: one for the civil year, the other for the sacred.
The Aztecs worshiped many gods, but considered themselves the chosen people of the god Huitzilopochtli (the sun god), who demanded human sacrifices. They believed that this god needed constant replenishment of blood: life in the universe could be prolonged only by sacrificing prisoners.
The Aztecs fought to capture more prisoners. At one ceremony during the reign of the last king, Monte Zuma II, 12 thousand captives were executed. The Aztecs sometimes ate the limbs of their victims, and their priests wore ceremonial robes made from human skin. If a brave warrior was sacrificed, the Aztecs were convinced that his strength would pass on to their own soldiers.
At the same time, the Aztecs valued modesty, compassion, obedience, and hard work. They implemented a strict legal system and severely punished crimes. Boys from noble families were sent to boarding schools, where they studied politics, law, history, music, and the art of war. Boys from families learned trade and craft.
According to Aztec mythology, the wind god Quetzalcoatl, returning from the east, will cause the fall of the Aztec empire, the Spanish conqueror E. Cortes
used this prediction to lay claim to the throne. Aztec ruler
Montezuma believed that Cortes was none other than God. Cortes took Montezuma hostage and began to rule on his behalf. In the end, the unfortunate king was stoned to death by his subjects, whom he tried to call to calm during the Aztec uprising. The fight against the Spaniards continued, in 1521 Cortes captured the capital Tenochtitlan, and then the entire empire. Thus ended the era of the Aztecs and began the era of New Spain.
At the beginning of the 16th century, when the capital of the Aztecs was the largest city in Central America, the capital became the center of South America Incas
Cusco. The Incas settled there in the 12th century. The Inca state stretches over thousands of kilometers in the Andes.
The engineering prowess of the Incas, more than their weapons, brought them success in conquest. Their roads were far superior in length and quality to Roman ones: one of them was almost 2.5 thousand km long. However, it was not only engineering and political insight that allowed them to create such a large country. Like the Aztecs, they believed that they had a divine mission to spread the light of the sun god.
At the head of the state was an unlimited ruler - the Supreme Inca. He ruled in the name of God and had absolute power. The blood relatives of the Incas, who called themselves “sons of the Sun” (the Sun was the main god of the Incas), occupied the highest positions in the state.
The nobility of the conquered peoples completely submitted to the “sons of the Sun”, adopted their language and governed their subjects according to the laws and customs of the Incas. With its help, the Incas controlled the entire country, right down to every peasant household.
The Inca ideology was actively spreading. The children of the “sons of the Sun” studied in special schools. In the absence of writing, they memorized information about religion, government, laws and customs of the Incas.
The population lived in communities. The community member had no right to go beyond the boundaries of the settlement territory without permission from the authorities. The arable land was divided into three parts: the harvest from one went to the priests, from the other to the Supreme Inca, and only one third of the harvest remained for the community members.
The state system provided care for orphans and food storage facilities. Food was distributed from state barns to soldiers and officials, and in case of crop failures and disasters, to the victims. The families of soldiers and those who went to public works were supported by the community.
All subjects were obliged to work where indicated: either on the land, or in construction, or serve in the army. Laziness was considered a serious crime; even children as young as five were required to work.
Postal communications were established between parts of the vast country. Messages from places to the capital were transmitted by specially trained messengers-runners, who were on duty in pairs at each section of the road. Inns and supply warehouses were located along the roads to supply traveling troops and officials.
The last Inca rulers declared themselves not only the descendants of the sun god, but also the god himself. The center of Cusco was rebuilt around the Temple of the Sun, whose walls were covered in gold.
The Inca Empire was overrun by a group of Spanish soldiers led by F. Pizarro.
This defeat was partly a consequence of the Incas' belief in the invulnerability of the ruler Atahualpa. All the power of the Incas was concentrated in their devotion to the emperor, and when he was captured, his subjects were confused, not knowing whom to obey. In addition, the Incas, like the Aztecs, did not have weapons that could withstand cannons and cavalry. Over the course of 50 years, the Spanish conquistadors expanded the borders of the empire so much that it was twice the size of Europe.